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Pathology > GI (Exam 3) > Flashcards

GI (Exam 3) Flashcards

1
Q

Cleft lip

A

failure of the maxillary processes and nasal elevations or upper lip to fuse during development

MALES TWICE AS LIKELY

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2
Q

Cleft palate

A

failure of the hard and soft palate to fuse in development, creating an opening between the oral and nasal cavity

COMMON MULTIFACTORIAL CONGENITAL DEFECTS OF THE MOUTH AND FACE THAT ARE APPARENT AT BIRTH AND VARY IN SEVERITY; USUALLY DEVELOP AT 4-7 WEEKS GESTATION

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3
Q

What can cleft lip and cleft palate lead to?

A

feeding issues, speech problems, ear infections, hearing problems

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4
Q

Cleft palate demographics

A

associated with GENETIC MUTATIONS, DRUGS, TOXINS, VIRUSES, VITAMIN DEFICIENCIES, CIGARETTE SMOKING

most frequent in NATIVE AMERICANS, HISPANICS, AND ASIANS; AAs least likely

FEMALES TWICE AS LIKELY

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5
Q

Esophageal atresia

A

incomplete formation of the esophagus; fairly common congenital defect (Type C)

rarest and most severe is Type D

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6
Q

Possible causes of esophageal atresia?

A

EXACTLY CAUSE UNKNOWN

VACTERL (Vertebral anomalies, Anal atresia, Cardiac malformations, Tracheoesophageal fistula, Renal anomalies, Limb anomalies)
heart defects
mental/physical developmental delays
genital hypoplasia
ear abnormalities

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7
Q

Risk factors of esophageal atresia?

A

increased paternal age
maternal use of assisted reproduction

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8
Q

Manifestations/complications of esophageal atresia

A

excessive secretions
coughing
vomiting
cyanosis after feeding

C: aspiration pneumonia

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9
Q

Pyloric stenosis (infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis)

A

narrowing and obstruction of the pyloric sphincter

muscle fibers become thick and stiff, making it difficult for the stomach to empty food into small intestine

MAY BE PRESENT AT BIRTH/DEVELOP LATER, MOST CASES PRESENT AT 3 WEEKS OLD

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10
Q

Causes/demographics of pyloric stenosis

A

EXACTLY CAUSE UNKNOWN (MULTIFACTORIAL), MOST COMMON IN MALES AND WHITES

EXPOSURE TO MACROLIDES (ANTIBIOTICS) IN EARLY INFANCY THOUGHT TO INCREASE RISK

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11
Q

Manifestations of pyloric stenosis

A

hard mass in abdomen
regurgitation
projectile vomiting
wavelike stomach contractions
small and infrequent stools
failure to gain weight
dehydration
irritability

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12
Q

Esophageal abnormality Causes of dysphagia

A

congenital atresia
esophageal stenosis/stricture
esophageal diverticula
tumors

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13
Q

Neurological Causes of dysphagia

A

stroke
cerebral damage
parkinson’s
alzheimer’s
muscular dystrophy
huntingtons
cerebral palsy
MS
ALS
Guillan-Barre

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14
Q

Manifestations of dysphagia

A

sensation of food being stuck in throat
choking
coughing
pocketing food in cheeks
difficulty forming a food bolus
delayed swallowing

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15
Q

Hiatal hernia

A

a section of the stomach protrudes upward through opening in diaphragm

RISK FACTORS ARE ADVANCING AGE AND SMOKING

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16
Q

Causes of hiatal hernia

A

weakening of diaphragm muscle
increased intrathoracic pressure (coughing, vomiting, straining during BM)
increased intra-abdominal pressure (pregnancy, obesity)
trauma
congenital defects

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17
Q

Hiatal hernia manifestations

A

indigestion
heartburn
frequent belching
nausea
chest pain
strictures
dysphagia
soft upper abdominal mass (protruding stomach pouch)

WORSENS WITH RECUMBENT POSITIONING, EATING ESPECIALLY AFTER LARGE MEALS, BENDING OVER, AND COUGHING

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18
Q

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

A

chyme or bile periodically backs up from the stomach into the esophagus, irritating the esophageal mucosa

often confused with angina and may warrant ruling out cardiac disease

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19
Q

Causes of GERD

A

certain foods (chocolate, caffeine, carbonated beverages, citrus, tomatoes, spicy or fatty foods, peppermint)
alcohol or nicotine
history of hiatal hernia
obesity
pregnancy
certain medications (corticosteroids, beta blockers, calcium-channel blockers, anticholinergics)
delayed gastric emptying

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20
Q

Manifestations of GERD

A

heartburn
epigastric pain (usually after meal or when recumbent)
dysphagia
dry cough
laryngitis
pharyngitis
regurgitation of food
sensation of lump in throat

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21
Q

Complications of GERD

A

esophagitis
strictures
ulcerations
esophageal cancer
chronic pulmonary disease

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22
Q

Gastritis

A

inflammation of the stomachs mucosal lining (may involve the entire stomach or region)

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23
Q

Acute gastritis

A

can be a mild transient irritation or it can be severe ulceration with hemorrhage

usually develops suddenly and likely to be accompanied by nausea and epigastric pain

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24
Q

Chronic gastritis

A

develops gradually; may be asymptomatic but usually accompanied by a dull epigastric pain and a sensation of fullness after minimal intake

can be further categorized as erosive or nonerosive

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25
Q

Helicobacter pylori

A

MOST COMMON CAUSE OF CHRONIC GASTRITIS

embeds itself in the mucous layer, activating toxins and enzymes that cause inflammation

genetic vulnerability and lifestyle behaviors like smoking or stress may increase susceptibility

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26
Q

Other causes of gastritis

A

food and water contamination
long term use of NSAIDs
excessive alcohol use
severe stress
autoimmune conditions

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27
Q

Gastritis manifestations

A

indigestion
heartburn
epigastric pain
abdominal cramping
nausea
vomiting
anorexia
fever
malaise

hematemesis and dark, tarry stools can indicate ulceration and bleeding

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28
Q

Complications of chronic gastritis

A

peptic ulcers
gastric cancer
hemorrhage

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29
Q

Gastroenteritis

A

inflammation of the stomach and intestines, usually because of an infection or allergic reaction

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30
Q

Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)

A

erosive lesions affecting stomach lining or duodenum; develops from an imbalance between destructive forces and protective mechanisms

vary in severity from superficial erosions to complete penetration

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31
Q

Risk factors for PUD

A

male
advancing age
NSAIDs
H. Pylori infections
certain gastric tumors
risk factors for GERD (smoking, alcohol, etc.)

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32
Q

Duodenal ulcers (PUD)

A

MOST COMMON (associated with excessive acid or H.Pylori)

typically present with epigastric pain that is relieved in the presence of food

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33
Q

Gastric ulcers (PUD)

A

LESS FREQUENT BUT DEADLIER (associated with malignancy and NSAIDs)

pain typically worsens with eating

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34
Q

Stress ulcers (PUD)

A

develop because of a major physiological stressor on the body due to local tissue ischemia, tissue acidosis, bile salts entering the stomach and decreased GI motility

curlings and cushing’s ulcers

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35
Q

Curlings ulcers

A

stress ulcers associated with burns

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36
Q

Cushing’s ulcers

A

stress ulcers associated with head injuries

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37
Q

Stress ulcers complications

A

GI hemorrhage
obstruction
perforation
peritonitis

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38
Q

Stress ulcers manifestations

A

epigastric or abdominal pain
abdominal cramping
heartburn
indigestion
nausea
vomiting

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39
Q

Cholelithiasis (gallstones)

A

common condition that varies in severity based on size of stone but affects both genders and all ethnic groups equally

may instruct bile flow and cause gallbladder rupture, fistula formation, gangrene, hepatitis, pancreatitis, and carcinoma

cholecystitis

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40
Q

Cholecystitis

A

inflammation or infection in the biliary system caused by calculi

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41
Q

Risk factors for cholelithiasis

A

advancing age
obesity
diet
rapid weight loss
pregnancy
hormone replacement
long-term parenteral nutrition

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42
Q

Manifestations of cholelithiasis

A

biliary colic
abdominal distention
nausea
vomiting
jaundice
fever
leukocytosis

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43
Q

Hepatitis

A

inflammation of the liver

can be acute, chronic or fulminant; active or nonactive

can result in hepatic cell destruction, necrosis, autolysis, hyperplasia, scarring

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44
Q

Hepatitis causes

A

infections (usually viral)
alcohol
medications (acetaminophen, antiseizure agents, antibiotics)
autoimmune disease

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45
Q

Nonviral hepatitis

A

noncontagious and most will recover (toxicity related to meds)

may develop liver failure, liver cancer or cirrhosis

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46
Q

Viral hepatitis

A

contagious but most will recover with sufficient time

advancing age and comorbidity increase the likelihood that liver failure, liver cancer or cirrhosis will develop

47
Q

Hepatitis A (HAV)

A

spread through food, drink, and close contact with infected person

48
Q

Hepatitis B (HBV)

A

spread from mother to baby, sexual transmission, sharing needles and contact with the blood of an infected person

49
Q

Hepatitis C (HCV)

A

spreads through childbirth, sharing needles, tattoos in unregulated shops

50
Q

Hepatitis D (HDV)

A

can only be contracted if you have HBV

51
Q

Hepatitis E (HEV)

A

transmitted via food or water

52
Q

Acute hepatitis

A

four phases; asymptomatic incubation phase, 3 symptomatic phases

53
Q

Chronic hepatitis

A

continued hepatic disease lasting longer than 6 months

symptom severity and diseases progression vary depending on degree of liver damage; can quickly deteriorate with declining liver integrity

54
Q

Cirrhosis

A

chronic, progressive, irreversible, diffuse damage to the liver resulting in decreased liver function; may develop after 40 yrs even if underlying cause is addressed

leads to fibrosis, nodule formation, impaired blood flow, bile obstruction that can result in liver failure

55
Q

Cirrhosis causes

A

HCV
chronic alcohol abuse

56
Q

Cirrhosis manifestations

A

portal hypertension
ascites
jaundice
varicosities
enlarged organs
slow/severe bleeding
clotting changes
muscle wasting
hyperlipidemia
hyper/hypoglycemia
toxin and bile accumulation
clay-colored stools and dark urine
intense itchiness
altered hormone regulation (decreased estrogen absorption)
esophageal varices

57
Q

Pancreatitis causes

A

cholelithiasis
alcohol abuse
biliary dysfunction
hepatotoxic drugs
metabolic disorders
trauma
renal failure
endocrine disorders
pancreatic tumors
penetrating peptic ulcer

58
Q

Pancreatitis

A

pancreatic injury causes enzymes to leak into pancreatic tissue and initiates autodigestion, resulting in edema, vascular damage, hemorrhage, and necrosis

pancreatic tissue is replaced by fibrosis which causes exocrine and endocrine changes and dysfunction of the islets of Langerhans

59
Q

Acute pancreatitis

A

medical emergency; mortality increases with advancing age and comorbidity

60
Q

Complications of acute pancreatitis

A

acute respiratory distress syndrome
diabetes mellitus
infection
shock
disseminated intravascular coagulation
renal failure
malnutrition
pancreatic cancer
pseudocyst
abscess

61
Q

Acute pancreatitis manifestations

A

usually sudden and severe
upper abdominal pain that radiates to the back, worsens after eating and is somewhat relieved by leaning forward of pulling knees to chest
nausea and vomiting
mild jaundice
low grade fever
BP and pulse changes

62
Q

Chronic pancreatitis manifestations

A

insidious
upper abdominal pain
indigestion
losing weight w/o trying
steatorrhea
constipation
flatulence

63
Q

Intestinal obstruction

A

sudden or gradual and partial or complete blockage of intestinal contents in intestines; mechanical and functional obstructions

chyme and gas accumulate at site of blockage; saliva, gastric juices, bile, and pancreatic secretions begin to collect as blockage lingers and can cause abdominal distention and pain

64
Q

Mechanical obstructions (intestinal)

A

foreign bodies
tumors
adhesions
hernias
intussusception
volvulus
strictures
IBS
fecal impaction

65
Q

Functional obstructions (paralytic ileus) (intestinal)

A

neurologic impairment
intra-abdominal surgery complications
chemical, electrolyte, and mineral disturbances
infections
blood supply impairment (strangulation, necrosis, contents seep into abdomen)
meds (narcotics)

66
Q

Intestinal obstruction complications

A

perforation
pH imbalance
fluid disturbances
shock
death

67
Q

Manifestations of intestinal obstruction

A

abdominal distention
abdominal cramping and colicky pain
nausea and vomiting
constipation or diarrhea
intestinal rushes
decreased/absent bowel sounds
restlessness
diaphoresis
tachycardia progressing to weakness
confusion and shock

68
Q

Appendicitis

A

inflammation of the vermiform appendix, most often caused by infection

69
Q

Appendicitis pathogenesis

A
  1. inflammation triggers local tissue edema, which obstructs small structure
  2. as fluid builds up inside appendix, microorganisms proliferate
  3. appendix fills with purulent exudate and area blood vessels become compressed
  4. ischemia and necrosis develop; bacteria and toxins leak out to surrounding structures
70
Q

Complications of appendicitis

A

abscesses
peritonitis
gangrene
sepsis
death

71
Q

Appendicitis manifestations

A

vary from asymptomatic to sudden and severe

nausea, vomiting, abdominal distention, bowel pattern changes
indications of inflammation and infection (fever, chills, leukocytosis)
indications of peritonitis (abdominal rigidity, tachycardia, hypotension)
sharp abdominal pain develops, gradually intensifies (over 12-24 hrs) and becomes localized to LRQ of abdomen (McBurney point)
pain may occur anywhere in abdomen and will temporarily subside when appendix ruptures then return and escalate

72
Q

Peritonitis

A

inflammation of the peritoneum that activates several protective mechanisms

73
Q

Peritonitis: Protective mechanisms

A
  1. thick, sticky exudate that bonds nearby structures and temporarily seals them off
  2. abscesses may form to wall off infections
  3. peristalsis may slow down in response to inflammation, decreasing spread of toxins
74
Q

Causes of peritonitis

A

chemical irritation (ruptured gallbladder or spleen)
direct organism invasion (appendicitis, peritoneal dialysis)

75
Q

Peritonitis manifestations

A

usually sudden and severe

ABDOMINAL RIGIDITY
abdominal tenderness and pain
decreased peristalsis
intestinal obstruction
nausea and vomiting
large volumes of fluid leak into peritoneal cavity
indicators of infection, sepsis or shock

76
Q

Celiac disease

A

celiac sprue or gluten sensitivity enteropathy; inherited, autoimmune, malabsorption disorder

most common in whites and women, a childhood disease but can develop any time

77
Q

Celiac disease causes

A
  1. combination of immune response to an environment factor (gliadin) and genetic predisposition
  2. defect in intestinal enzymes that prevents further digestion of gliadin (a product of gluten digestion)
    intestinal villi with atrophy and flatten, causing decreased enzyme production, decreasing surface area available for nutrient absorption
78
Q

Celiac disease manifestations

A

in infants, generally appear as cereals are added to diet (4-6 months)
abdominal pain/distention
bloating
gas
indigestion
constipation
diarrhea
lactose intolerance
nausea
steatorrhea
weight loss
irritability
lethargy
malaise
behavioral changes

79
Q

Complications of celiac disease

A

anemia
arthralgia
myalgia
bone disease
dental enamel defects and discoloration
intestinal cancers
depression
growth and development delays in kids
hair loss
hypoglycemia
mouth ulcers
increased bleeding tendencies
neurologic disorders
skin disorders
vitamin/mineral deficiency
endocrine disorders

80
Q

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

A

chronic inflammation of the GI tract, usually intestines; exacerbations and remissions and can be painful, debilitating, and life-threatening
women, whites, jewish people, and smokers

thought to be caused by genetically associated autoimmune state that has been activated by infection

immune cells located in the intestinal mucosa are stimulated to release inflammatory mediators that alter the function and neural activity of the secretory and smooth muscle cells

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, pH IMBALANCES DEVELOP

81
Q

Crohn’s disease (IBD)

A

insidious, slow developing, progressive condition often develops in adolescence

patchy areas of inflammation involving the full thickness of the intestinal wall and ulcerations (skip lesions); wall is thick/rigid and lumen is narrowed

82
Q

Crohn’s disease pathogenesis

A
  1. form fissures developed by nodules, giving the intestinal wall a cobblestone appearance
  2. granulomas develop on intestinal wall and nearby lymph nodes
  3. damaged intestinal wall loses ability to digest and absorb
  4. inflammation also stimulates intestinal motility, decreasing digestion and absorption
83
Q

Crohn’s disease manifestations

A

abdominal cramping and pain (RLQ)
diarrhea
steatorrhea
constipation
palpable abdominal mass
melena
anorexia
weight loss
indications of inflammation (fever, fatigue, arthralgia, malaise)

84
Q

Complications of crohn’s disease

A

malnutrition
anemia (iron deficiency)
fistulas
adhesions
abscesses
intestinal obstruction
perforation
anal fissure
delayed growth and development
fluid, electrolyte, pH imbalances

85
Q

Ulcerative colitis (IBD)

A

progressive condition of the rectum and colon mucosa, usually developing in 20s-30s

ulcers merge = inadequate surface area for absorption

86
Q

Ulcerative colitis pathogenesis

A
  1. inflammation triggered by T cell accumulation in colon mucosa which causes epithelium loss, surface erosion, and ulceration that begins in rectum and extends to entire colon
  2. mucosa becomes inflamed, edematous, and frail
  3. necrosis of the epithelial tissue can result in abscesses; granulation tissue formed is fragile
87
Q

Ulcerative colitis manifestations

A

diarrhea (frequent, as many as 20x daily)
watery stools (with blood and mucus)
proctitis
abdominal cramping
nausea and vomiting
weight loss
indications of inflammation (fever, fatigue, arthralgia, malaise)

88
Q

Ulcerative colitis complications

A

malnutrition
anemia
hemorrhage
perforation
strictures
fistulas
toxic megacolon
colorectal carcinoma
liver disease
fluid, electrolyte, and pH imbalances

89
Q

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

A

chronic, noninflammatory GI condition with exacerbations associated with stress

includes alterations in bowel pattern and abdominal pain not explained by structural or biochemical abnormalities

less serious than IBD and doesn’t cause permanent intestinal damage; MORE COMMON IN WOMEN

90
Q

3 theories of IBS etiology

A
  1. altered GI motility
  2. visceral hyperalgesia (increased sensitivity to pain)
  3. psychopathology
    intensified response to stimuli with increased intestinal motility and contractions means low tolerance for stretching and pain in intestinal smooth muscle
91
Q

Complications of IBS

A

hemorrhoids
nutritional deficits
social issues
sexual discomfort

92
Q

Manifestations of IBS

A

stress, mood disorders, food, and hormone changes often worsen symptoms
abdominal distention, fullness, flatus, and bloating
intermittent abdominal pain exacerbated by eating and relieved with shitting
chronic and frequent constipation or diarrhea usually with pain
non bloody stool that may contain mucus
bowel urgency
intolerance to certain foods (gas-forming; sorbitol, lactose, gluten)
emotional distress
anorexia

93
Q

Diverticular Disease

A

conditions related to the development of diverticula, outwardly bulging pouches of intestinal wall that occur when mucosa secretions or large intestine submucosa layers herniate through a weakened muscular layer; may be congenital or acquired

94
Q

Diverticular disease causes

A

low-fiber diet and poor bowel habits resulting in chronic constipation (muscular wall can become weakened from the prolonged effect of moving hard stools)

more common in developed countries with shitty diets

95
Q

Diverticulosis

A

asymptomatic diverticular disease, multiple diverticula present

96
Q

Diverticulitis

A

diverticula become inflamed, usually because of retained fecal matter (often asymptomatic until it becomes serious)

potential for fatal obstruction, infection, abscess, perforation, peritonitis, hemorrhage, shock

97
Q

Diverticular disease manifestations

A

abdominal cramping
passing frank blood
low-grade fever
abdominal tenderness (LLQ)
abdominal distention/mass
constipation
obstipation
nausea
leukocytosis

98
Q

Oral Cancer

A

most cases involve squamous cell carcinomas of the tongue and mouth floor; very treatable if caught early but most cases are advanced upon diagnosis

usually appears as one or more painless, whitish thickenings that develop into a nodule or an ulcerative lesion that persists, doesn’t heal and bleeds easily

a lump, thickening or soreness in the mouth, throat, or tongue as well as difficulty chewing or swallowing

99
Q

Risk factors of oral cancer

A

smoked and smokeless tobacco
alcohol consumption
viral infections (HPV)
immunodeficiency
inadequate nutrition
poor dental hygiene
chronic irritation
exposure to UV light

often metastasizes to neck lymph nodes and esophagus

100
Q

Esophageal cancer

A

usually squamous cell carcinoma in distal esophagus; most common in men and associated with chronic irritation

tumors grow the circumference of the esophagus, creating a stricture, or they can grow out into the lumen of the esophagus creating an obstruction

101
Q

Complications of esophageal cancer

A

esophageal obstruction
respiratory compromise
esophageal bleeding

102
Q

Manifestations of esophageal cancer

A

usually asymptomatic early, delaying treatment

dysphagia
chest pain
weight loss
hematemesis (vomiting blood)

103
Q

Gastric cancer

A

occurs in several forms but adenocarcinoma (an ulcerative lesion) is most frequent

incidence and mortality rates declined in US but very prevalent in Japan

104
Q

Risk factors of gastric cancer

A

STRONGLY ASSOCIATED WITH INTAKE OF SALTED, CURED, PICKLED, PRESERVED, AND SMOKED FOOD
low fiber diet
constipation
family history
H.Pylori infections
smoking
pernicious anemia
chronic atrophic gastritis
gastric polyps

105
Q

Manifestations of gastric cancer

A

asymptomatic early stages delay diagnosis and treatment
abdominal pain/fullness
epigastric discomfort
palpable abdominal mass
melena
dysphagia that worsens over time
excessive belching
anorexia
nausea
vomiting
hematemesis
premature abdominal fullness after meals
unintentional weight loss
weakness
fatigue

106
Q

Liver Cancer

A

most commonly occurs as a second tumor that has metastasized from breast, lung or other GI structures; rates in US have tripled since 1980

causes of primary tumors are chronic cirrhosis and hepatitis

107
Q

Liver cancer manifestations

A

anorexia
fever
jaundice
nausea
vomiting
abdominal pain (RUQ)
hepatomegaly
splenomegaly
portal hypertension
edema
third spacing
ascites
paraneoplastic syndrome
diaphoresis
weight loss

108
Q

Pancreatic cancer

A

aggressive malignancy that quickly metastasizes, usually adenocarcinoma

most frequent in men and AA’s

109
Q

Pancreatic cancer risk factors

A

family history
obesity
chronic pancreatitis
long-standing diabetes mellitus
cirrhosis
alcohol abuse
tobacco use

110
Q

Pancreatic cancer manifestations

A

often asymptomatic until well advanced
progressive upper abdomen pain that may radiate to back
jaundice
dark urine
clay-colored stools
indigestion
anorexia
weight loss
depression
malnutrition
hyperglycemia
increased clotting tendencies

111
Q

Colorectal cancer

A

very common and fatal

associated with fatty, caloric, low fiber diets with red meat, processed meal, and alcohol

112
Q

Risk factors for colorectal cancer

A

male
AA
family history
advancing age
obesity
tobacco use
physical inactivity
IBD

113
Q

Colorectal cancer manifestations

A

asymptomatic until advanced
lower abdominal pain and tenderness
blood in stool (occult or frank)
diarrhea
constipation
intestinal obstruction
narrow stools
unexplained anemia (usually iron deficiency)
unintentionally weight loss

Pathology (8 decks)

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