Geology and the Environment - Unit 2 Flashcards
A Horizon
Usually top zone in soil profile, consisiting of mix of mineral and organic material
Anaerobic
Decomposition that occurs without using, or in the absence of, oxygen
Anthracite
The hardest of naturally occuring coals
Aquifer
Rock that is sufficiently porous and permeable to be useful as a source of water
Aquitard
Rock of low permeability, through which water flows very slowly
Artesian System
A confined aquifer system in which ground water can rise above its aquifer under its own pressure
B Horizon
Soil layer found below the soil’s A and E horizons; also known as the zone of accumulation
Banded Iron Formation
A Sedimentary rock consisting of alternating iron-rich and iron-poor bands, gound in Precambrian rocks, that may serve as an ore of iron
Bitumen
The dark, heavy, viscous petroleum found in oil sands
Bituminous
A form opf coal that is softer than anthracite but harder than lignite
C Horizon
Soil layer found directly below the soil’s B horizon; consists of coarsely broken berock
Chemical Weathering
The breakdown of minerals by chemical reaction with water, with other chemicals dissolved in water, or with gases in the air
Coal-Bed Methane
Methane associated with, and extracted from, coal deposits
Concentration Factor
The concetration of a metal in a given ore deposit divided by its average concentration in the continental crust
Conditional Resources
Subeconomic Resources; Those resources already gound that cannot be exploited economically with existing technology; also known as conditional resources
Cone of Depression
A Broadly conical depression of the water table or petentiometric surface caused by pumped groundwater withdrawal
Confined Aquifer
An aquifer overlain by an aquitard or aquiclude
Cumulative Reserves
The total reserves, including materials already consumed or exploited
Darcy’s Law
Relationship of groundwater flow rate between two points to the difference in hydraulic head between them
Discharge
The amount of water flowing past a given point per unit time
E Horizon
Layer typically found between A and B soil horizons; also known as the zone of leaching
Evaporite
A sedimentary mineral deposit formed when a shallow or inland sea drys up; also,. The mnerals commonly deposited in such an environment
Fossil Fuel
Hydrocarbon Fuels formed from organic matter
Fracking
The process by which atomic nuclei combine to produce larger nuclei
Gasification
Any process by which coal is converted to gaseous hydrocarbon fuel
Geopressurized Zones
Deep aquifers under unusually high pressure, exceeding normal hydrostatic (Fluid) pressure
Ground Water
Water in the zone of saturation, below the water table
Hard Water
Water containing substantial quantities of dissolved clacium, magnesium, and/or iron
Hydraulic Head
Potential energy of water above a given point, reflected in the ehight of the water surface (above ground), water table in an unconfined aquifer, or potentiometric surface in a confined aquifer
Hydrothermal Ores
Ores deposited by circulating warm fluids in the earth’s crust
Hypothetical Resources
The quantity of resource material expected to befound in areas in which like deposits are known to exist
Karst
Terrain characterized by abundant formation of underground solution cavities and sinkholes; commonly underlain by limestone
Kerogen
A waxy solid hydrocarbon in oil shale
Kimberlites
Igneous rocks that occur as pipelike intrusive bodies that probably originated in the mantle
Laterite
An extreme variety of pedalfer soil that is highly leached; common in tropical climates
Leaching
The removal of elements or compounds by dissolution
Lignite
The softest of coals
Liquifaction
Coal: any process by which coal is converted into a liquid hydrocarbon fuel/ Soil: A quicksand condition arising in wet soil shaken by seismic waves; soil loses its strength as particles lose contact with each other
Manganese Nodules
Lumps of manganese and iron oxides and hydroxides, with other metals, found on the sea floor
Mechanical Weathering
The physical breakup of rock or mineral grains by surface processes
Methane Hydrate
A crystalline solid of natural gas and water molecules, found in arctic regions and marine sediments
Natural Gas
Gaseous hydrocarbons, especially methane (CH4)
Nonrenewable
Not being replenished or formed at any significant rate on a human time scale
O Horizon
Top layer of soil, consisting wholly of organic matter; not always present
Oil
Any various liquid hydrocarbon compounds
Oil Sand
Sedimentary rock, usually sandstone, containing thick, heavy, tarlike hydrocarbon bitumen
Oil Shale
A sedimentary rock containing the waxy solid hydrocarbon kerogen
Ore
A rock in which a valuable or useful metal occurs at a concentration sufficiently high to make it economically practical to mine
Pedalfer
A moderately leached soil rich in residual iron and aluminum oxide minerals
Pedocal
A soil in which calcium carbonate and other readily soluble minerals are retained; characteristic of drier climates
Pegmatite
A very coarsly crystalline igneous rock
Permeability
A measure of how readily fluid can flow through a rock, sediment or soil
Petroleum
Liquid hydrocarbons derived from organic matter and used as a fuel
Phreatic Zone
Saturated Zone: The region of rock or soil in which pore spaces are completely filled with liquid
Placer
The ores concentrated by streal or wave action on the basis of mineral densities and/or resistance to weathering
Porosity
Proportion of void space in rock, sediment, or soil
Potentiometric Surface
A feature analogous to a water table but applied to confined aquifers; indicates the height to which the water’s pressure would raise the water if the water were unconfined
Rare-Earth Elements
Elements with atomic numbers from 57 through 71
Recharge
The process of infiltraton and migration by which ground water is replenished
Remote Sensing
Investigation without direct contact, as by using aerial or satellite photography, radar, and so on
Reserves
The quantity of a resource material that has been found and is recoverable economically with existing technology
Saltwater Intrusion
The process by which salt water replaces fresh ground water when the freshwater is being used more rapidly than it is being recharged; especially common in coastal areas
Saturated Zone
The region of rock or soil in which pore spaces are completely filled with liquid
Shale Gas
Natural gas occuring in shale typically of low permeability
Sinkhole
A circular depression in the ground surface commonly caused by collapse into an underground cavern formed by solution
Soil
The accumulation of unconsolidated rock and mineral fragments and organic matter formed in place at the earth’s surface; capable of supporting life
Soil Moisture
Water in the soil in te zone of aeration or vadose zone
Speculative Resources
The quantity of a resource material that has been found and is recoverable economically with existing technology
Spoil Banks
Piles of waste rock and soil left behind by surface mining, especially strip-mining
Subeconomic resources
Those resources already gound that cannot be exploited economically with existing technology; also known as conditional resources
Tailings
The piles of crushed waste rock created as a by-product of mineral processing
Unconfined Aquifer
An aquifer not overlain directly by an aquitard
Unsaturaetd Zone
A partly saturated region of rock or soil, above the water table; also known as the vadose zone
Vadose Zone
A partly saturated region of rock or soil, above the water table
Water Table
The top of the zone of saturation
Zone of Accumulation
The B Horizon; Soil layer found below the soil’s A and E horizons
Zone of Leaching
The E Horizon; Layer typically found between A and B soil horizons
Alluvial Fan
A wedge shaped sediment deposit left where a tributary flows inrto a more slowly flowing stream, or where a mountain stream flows into a desert
Base Level
The lowest elevation to which a stream can cut down; for most streams, this is the level of the body of water into which they flow, such as another stream, lake, or ocean
Braided Stream
A stream with multiple channels that divide and rejoin
Capacity (Stream)
The load a stram can carry
Channelization
The modification of a stream channel, such as deepeningo or straightening of the channel, usually with the objective of reducing flood hazards
Crest
The maximum stage reached during a flood event
Cut Bank
Steep stream bank being eroded by lateral migration of meanders
Delta
A fan shaped deposit of sediment formed at a stream’s mouth
Discharge
The amount of water flowing past a given point per unit time
Downstream Flood
A flood affecting a large area of a drainage basin or a large stream system; typically caused by prolonged rain or rapid regional snowmelt
Drainage Basin
The region from which surface water drains itno a particular stream
Flood
Condition in which stream stage is above channel bank height
Flood Frequency Curve
A graph of stream stage ordischarge as a function of recurrence interval (or annual probability of occurrence)
Floodplain
A flat region or valley flood surrounding a stream channel, formed by meandering and sediment deposition, into which the stream overflows during flooding
Gradient
The slope (steepness) of a stream channel along its length
Hydrograph
A graph of stream stage or discharge against time
Hydrologic Cycle
The cycle through whcih water in the hydrosphere moves; includes such processes as evaporation, precipitation, and surface and groundwater runoff
Hydrosphere
All water at and near the earth’s surface that is not chemically bound in rocks
Infiltration
The process by whcih surface water sinks into the ground
Levees
Raised banks along a stream channel that tend to containthe water during high-discharge events
Load (stream)
The total quantity of material transported by a stream: Sum of bed load, suspended load and dissolved load
Longitudinal Profile
Diagram of elevation of a stream bed along its length
Meanders
The curves or bends ina stream channel
Oxbows
Old meanders now cut off or abandoned by the stream
Percolation
Movement of subsurface water throuogh rock or soil under its own pressure
Point Bars
A sedimentary feature built in a stream channel, on the inside of a meander or anywhere the water slows
Recurrence Interval
The average length of time between floods of a given size along a particular stream
Retention Pond
A large basin designed to catch surface runoff to prevent its flow directly into a stream
Stage (stream)
The height (elevation) of a stream surface at a given point along the stream’s length; usually expressed as elevation above sea level
Stream
A body of flowing water confined within a channel
Upstream Flood
Flood affecting only localized sections of a stream ssytem; caused by such events as intense, local cloudbursts or a dam failure; typically breif in duration
Well Sorted
Describes seduiments displaying uniform particle size and/or density
Greenhouse Effect
The warming of the atmosphere due to trapping of infrared rays by atmospheric gases, especially as due to the increased concentration of carbon dioxide derived from the burning of fossil fuels
Permafrost
A condition found in cold climates, wherein ground remains frozen year-round at some depth below the surface
Thermohaline Circulation
Major ocean circulation pattern, driven by winds and by differences in temperature and salinity of water masses
Common but Differentiated Responsibility of States
The concept that all nations share responsibility for protecting the global environment, but individual nations’ responsibilities differ with their differing contributions to the problems and resources available to address them
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
An analysis of the environmental impacts to be anticipated from a proposed action and its alternatives; mandated by the National Environmental Policy Act and legislation patterned after it
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
Zone extending to 200 miles offshore from a nation’s coast, within which the 1982 Law of the Sea Treaty recognizes that nation’s exclusive right to resource exploitation
Precautionary Principle
A concept in international law/diplomacy under which nations’ activities may be restricted if there is reasonable likelihood that those activities may be harmful; significant damage (as to the environment) need not already have occured
Prior Appropriation
Principle of surface water law by which users of water from a given source have priority rights to it on the basis of relative time of first use
Riparian Doctrine
The principle of surface-water law by which all landowners bordering a body of water have equal rights to it
