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2017/2018 > GEOG 222 > Flashcards

GEOG 222 Flashcards

1
Q

GIS

A

geographic information system

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2
Q

spatial dependence

A

many events depend on their location

-eg. plant growth - slope? sun? nutrients?..

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3
Q

what is a map

A

a form of communication

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4
Q

what is a geographic information system

A 
a system for
-capturing
-storing
-checking
-integrating
-manipulating
-analysing 
-displaying
data which are spatially reference to Earth
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5
Q

spatial data

A
  • collection of measurements taken at specific locations

- mappable

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6
Q

why are maps distorted

A

making a 3D object 2D

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7
Q

how do we unroll the globe to make it flat

A

projections

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8
Q

how do we manage spatial locations

A

coordinates

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9
Q

Early Earth models

A
  • oyster (Babylonians)
  • rectangular box
  • circular disk
  • cylindrical column
  • spherical ball
  • very round pear
  • flat earth
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10
Q

Earth’s shape

A

oblate spheroid

  • squashed 1/298th
  • equatorial bulge ca. 42km
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11
Q

georeferencing requires

A

projections
coordinates
scale

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12
Q

Earth’s surface

A

Ellipsoid surface
Topographic surface
Geoid surface

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13
Q

ellipsoid surface

A
  • mathematical expectation of the surface based on location

- no single ellipsoid for entire Earth

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14
Q

Geoid surface

A

mean sea level in the absence of winds, currents, tides

-based on gravitation

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15
Q

geodetic datum

A

-link between reference ellipsoid and geoid

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16
Q

how to start geodetic datum

A
  • start w/ pt of known location, found using astronomical technique or GPS
  • expressed in terms of lat/long
  • All coordinates on Earth are referenced to a horizontal datum
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17
Q

geodetic datum examples

A

NAD 27

NAD 83

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18
Q

NAD 27

A
  • North American Datum of 1927
  • based on centre of US
  • Clark Ellipsoid
  • semi major 6,378,206.4m
  • semi minor 6,356,583.8m
  • flattening 1:294.97869
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19
Q

semi major

A

horizontal axis

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20
Q

semimajor axis

A
  • longest diameter
  • line segment that runs through the center and both foci
  • ends at the widest points of the perimeter
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21
Q

globe

A
  • doesnt need projection

- preserves: directions, angles, distances, angles, areas

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22
Q

globe disadvantages

A
  • very small scale, little detail
  • costly to reproduce/ update
  • difficult to carry, store
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23
Q

map projection

A

transformation of 3D surface to 2D

  • direct geometric projection OR
  • mathmatically derived transformation
  • easier, cheaper, more detailed
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24
Q

map projection problem

A

distortion!

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25
Q

map projections centred at 39N and 96W

A
  • Mercator
  • Lambert Conformal Conic
  • Un-projected latitude and longitude
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26
Q

39N and 96W

A

middle of US

Kansas

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27
Q

Characteristics of map projections

A
  1. Class
  2. Case
  3. Aspect
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28
Q

Map Projections, Class

A

developable surface

  • cylinder
  • conde
  • plane
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29
Q

cylindrical projection

A
  • distors high latitudes
  • longitudes are straight, parallel, equal spaced
  • latitudes are straight but not equal as top of earth is ‘unwrapped’
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30
Q

example of cylindrical projection distortion

A

Greenland looks nearly the same size as Africa

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31
Q

conic projection

A
  • wrap a cone of paper around the Earth
  • longitudes: straight lines, diverging
  • latitudes: circular, around poles
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32
Q

Planar projection

A

long. - straight, equally spaced, radiate from centre
lat. - centric circles, equal spacing
- ‘bicycle wheel’

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33
Q

Map projection characteristics, case

A

where and how DS intersects with RG

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34
Q

Map projection cases

A

tangent- DS touches RG along one line or point

secant- through 2 points on either side, DS passes through RG

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35
Q

DS

A

developable surface

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36
Q

RG

A

reference globe

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37
Q

Map projection characteristics, aspect

A
  • position of the projection centre w.r.t. RG

- defines latitude of origin

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38
Q

map projection aspects

A

equatorial
polar
oblique

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39
Q

oblique aspect

A

between pole and equator

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40
Q

components that we try to preserve from distortion

A
  • angles
  • area
  • distance
  • direction
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41
Q

used for molar maps

A

planar projection

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42
Q

to preserve shapes

A

angles

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43
Q

Mercator

A
  • preserves angles/ shapes
  • wrong for area
  • conformal
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44
Q

conformal

A

lat and long intersect at 90º

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45
Q

Albers equivelant conic

A

developer: Albers
preserves: area (equivalent)
projection: conic

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46
Q

Antarctica in Mercator

A

HUGE
way too big
shows that area not preserved

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47
Q

Antartica in Albers

A

long thing line across bottom
obviously wrong shape
preserves area

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48
Q

the “Unprojected” projection

A
  • assumes 360º at all lats.
  • y axis = lat
  • x axis = longitude
  • not conformal, not equal area
  • nothing fully preserved
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49
Q

unprojected projection uses

A

-used more than should be, NASA for ex.

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50
Q

other names for the ‘unprojected’

A

Plate Carrée

Equirectangular

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51
Q

why use equrectangular projection

A
  • simple to construct
  • simple calculations
  • high lats. are less distorted
  • highest distortion away from from central parallel
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52
Q

The Fuller Projection

A

Dymaxion

  • attempts to solve all 4 (area, angle, distance, direction)
  • icosahedron (20-sided)
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53
Q

Dymaxxion =

A

DYnamic MAXimum tensION

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54
Q

Fuller projection advantages

A
  • can see how all continents are connected
  • minimal distortion
  • easier to work with
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55
Q

Tissot’s Indicatrix

A
  • measures and illustrates distortions in projections

- representation of the scale factor

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56
Q

Cartesian Coordinates

A
  • based on user-defined origin
  • recorded as X, Y
  • suggests 1ºX = 1ºY
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57
Q

Graticules

A

network of lines representing the Earth’s parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude

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58
Q

longitude

A

λ

used in East - West measurements

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59
Q

UTM

A

Universal Transverse Mercator

  • cylindrical, conformal, transverse mercator
  • internationally standard coordinate system
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60
Q

transverse mercator

A

cylinder touches Earth along a meridian of longitude not the equator

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61
Q

UTM Zones

A
  • 60 zones
  • 6º long
  • each w/ a Central Meridian
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62
Q

latitude

A

Φ

North - South measurement

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63
Q

UTM Zone 1

A

180 -174ºW

-CM: 177ºW

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64
Q

UTM coordinates

A

In NH: define equator as 0mN

  • CM: false Easting of 500,000 mE
  • Easting and Northings in m’s
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65
Q

UTM georeference

A

zone, 6-digit Easting, 7-digit northing

ex. 14, 468324mE, 5362789mE

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66
Q

FSA

A

-forward sortation area
-first 3 digits of postal code
First letter = province
Number = rural or urban
Third digit = more precise geographic location

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67
Q

each UTM is a

A

projection

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68
Q

RF

A

representative factor

  • ratio btw distance on map and corresponding distance on ground
  • 1: ground distance/map distance
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69
Q

verbal statement of RF

A

one centimetre corresponds to one kilometre

-1cm DOES NOT EQUAL 1km

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70
Q

large scale

A

-object are relatively large
-more detail
-less generalized
1/250 is a bigger number than 1/25000000

71
Q

location

A

describes where a thing is

72
Q

attribute

A

provides information about the ‘thing’

73
Q

object model

A

= entity model

  • collection of self-contained objects, relationships
  • objects are described by attributes
  • vector = objects
74
Q

field models

A
  • phenomena have spatially continuous attributes
  • value is possible at a infinite number of point location
  • Raster = field
75
Q

object model example

A

crimes - object w/ spatial location

attributes - type, cost, police officer

76
Q

field model example

A

soil salinity - every location has a measure
-cannot measure an infinite # of points
-create zones
(also, elevation)

77
Q

Lines, Vectors

A
  • ordered set of points
  • first and last = nodes
  • may be called arcs
78
Q

Pixel

A

-a square w/ length = to resolution, area = length^2

79
Q

attributes than may be recorded during data collection

A 
height
income
age
distance
size
80
Q

in spatial analysis we need

A

what - attributes

where - location

81
Q

databases can be organized in different ways

A

= database models

82
Q

common GIS database model

A

RDMS

83
Q

database rows =

A

spatial objects

84
Q

database columns

A

object attributes

85
Q

Queries, operators 1

A

AND - space between
OR - all of the 2 circles
NOT

86
Q

topology

A
  • science, mathematics of relationships

- associated w/ vector representations

87
Q

one of most unique and powerful GIS functions

A

topology

88
Q

what does topology ‘do’

A
  • polygons close

- lines connect

89
Q

SQL

A

standard query language

90
Q

Ways to select in ArcGIS

A
  • by attribute
  • by location
  • feature
91
Q

Select feature

A
  • by cursor or by graphic (ex. features within a circle you draw)
  • crude selection method
92
Q

Proximity search

A
  • within a distance of a location
  • select by location
  • “are within a distance of the source layer feature”
93
Q

adjacency search

A
  • select by location

- “share a line segment with”

94
Q

Buffer, fixed distance

A
  • buffer distance constant

- all features buffered to same width

95
Q

Buffer, distance from field

A

various buffer widths applied in same operation

96
Q

Geodesic buffer

A
  • accounts for shape of Earth (ellipsoid, geoid) in the calculations
  • more accurate for large areas, greater than 1 UTM
97
Q

Cartesian buffer

A

= Euclidean buffer

  • distances calculated btw points on a plane
  • more common
  • best in relatively small areas (like one UTM zone_
98
Q

most accurate buffer

A

geodesic

99
Q

problem with geodesic buffer

A

more time to generate

100
Q

geodesic line

A

shortest path between two points on an ellipsoid

101
Q

spatial analysis requires

A

both

  • attributes
  • locations
102
Q

buffer

A
  • a zone around a map feature measured in units of distance or time
  • a polygon enclosing a point, line, or polygon at a specified distance
103
Q

geoprocessing

A

-generating a new layer by performing an action/transformation on another layer and then a query

104
Q

RDMS

A

relational database management system

105
Q

FID

A

feature identification

  • unique code for every polygon
  • no repeats
106
Q

Proximity

A

analysis in which features (points, lines, polygons) are selected based on their distance from other features

107
Q

parallels

A
  • line of latitude
  • parallel to equator
  • a position north or south of equator
  • unequal lengths
108
Q

Convert 48º 27’ 51” N into decimal degrees

A

51” / 60” = 0.85’
27.85’ / 60 = 0.4641666666º
= 48.4642ºN

109
Q

number of UTMs

A

60

110
Q

numbering of UTM zones

A 
1 = 180º W
30 = 0º
60 = 180º E
111
Q

significant figures in decial degrees

A
  • 4 decimal places if minutes and seconds are present

- 2 decimal places if only minutes are present

112
Q

convert 123.9858º W into degrees minutes seconds

A

0.9858º x 60’ = 59.148’
0.148’ x 60” = 8.88
= 123º 59’ 9”
** no decimals on seconds

113
Q

Meridians

A
  • linges of longitude

- East - West positions

114
Q

UTM zone latitudes

A

80ºS - 84ºN

115
Q

Polar regions and UTM zones?

A

not included in UTM zones

-use UPS grid system

116
Q

0º longitude

A

Prime Meridian

-Greenwich England

117
Q

UPS grid system, polar regions

A

Universal Polar Stereographic grid system

118
Q

calculate which UTM zone a point is in

A

West of Greenwich: (180º - long. of city) / 6º

East of Greenwich: (180º + long. of city) / 6º

*** always round UP

119
Q

UTM grid

A

designated by Eastings and Northings

-on 1:50,000 map, grid is 1000m x 1000m squares

120
Q

Eastings

A
  • vertical lines references from zones central meridian
  • referred to as ‘false Eastings’ b/c central meridian is arbitrarily assigned to 500,000m
  • listed in a position before Northings
121
Q

why is UTM CM arbitrarily assigned

A

so that an Easting of 0 does not occur

122
Q

map scale

A
  • ratio btw map distance and ground distance
  • MD : GD
  • scales never contain decimals
123
Q

scale can be expressed in 3 ways

A
  1. RF
  2. Verbally
  3. Graphically
124
Q

Significant figures, trailing zeroes

A 
-only sig. if decimal pt. specified
12 -> 2 sig fig
1200 -> 2 s.f.
12000 -> 12 s.f.
12.0 -> 3
125
Q

significant figures, leading zeroes

A

never significant

  1. 04 -> 1
  2. 04000 -> 4
126
Q

map projection used to show correct distance selected location and another

A

Equidistant map

-all other points are distorted

127
Q

Equivelant projection

A
  • preserves area

- alteres angles

128
Q

Conformal

A
  • projection preserves angles locally

- shapes preserved in small areas

129
Q

projection that correctly shows direction from one point to another

A

azimuthal

130
Q

Mutually exclusive projections

A
  • equivalent and conformal

- no projection can preserve shape and area

131
Q

ArcMap version

A

10.5

132
Q

ways to view data in the data frame

A
  • data view

- layout view

133
Q

developable surface

A

geometric shape that can be laid out into a flat surface without stretching or tearing

134
Q

examples of cylindrical projections

A

Mercator
Plate Carre
Gall-Peters cylindrical equal-area projection

135
Q

examples of conic projections

A

Lambert Conformal Conic

Albers Equar Area Conic

136
Q

When, on a Tissot’s indicatrix map, would the circles not preserve the character of interest along the equator

A
  • if secant –> no distortion will be along the standard parallel lines (perhaps 45º N and S)
  • if centred somewhere else in a tangent
137
Q

one of the biggest differences btw ArcMAP and others

A

you add data not open files

138
Q

GIS stores two types of information on a map

A
  1. geographic definitions of E surface features

2. attributes or qualities the features possess

139
Q

vectors

A
  • features defined by points, a single coordinate pair

- points are connected into chains/arc and polygons

140
Q

raster basic building block

A

-individual gird cell = pixel

141
Q

raster cells represent

A
  • categories (eg. land uses)
  • magnitudes
  • heights
  • spectral values
  • continuous or discrete data
142
Q

spatial resolution of an image

A
  • defined by the size of the pixel

- 20m x 20m cell = 20m resolution

143
Q

raster advantages

A
  • simple data structure
  • powerful
  • better represent continuous data
  • potentially paster processing
  • stronger analyses capabilities
144
Q

vector advantage

A
  • more realistic

- uses less computer space

145
Q

raster limitations

A
  • spatial inaccuracies due to limits of cell dimensions

- can be very large

146
Q

access attribute data

A
  1. Identify tool

2. right-click on layer name and select open attribute table

147
Q

smaller pixel size

A
  • increase in number of columns and rows

- increase in resolution

148
Q

stretched pixel value

A
  • image enhancement

- change original values by increasing contrast to make easier to view

149
Q

raster attribute table

A
  • each pixel does not have own record
  • pixels w/ same value grouped together
  • count = number of pixels w/ same value
150
Q

process of converting vector data to raster data

A

rasterization

151
Q

shapefile

A
  • simple, non topological
  • for storing geometric location and attribute info
  • features unique
  • geometry = point, line, polygon
152
Q

shape files contain how many files

A

3-8 w/ same name, different extension

153
Q

main files associated with shape file

A

.shp
.shx
.dbf`

154
Q

images

A
  • raster layer

- cells = brightness values of visible light

155
Q

query categories (2 main)

A

attribute

spatial

156
Q

attribute query

A

uses records in attribute table to test conditions

-ex. how many streets end with ‘wood’

157
Q

spatial query

A

-use info from 2+ different layers to determine how features are located w.r.t. each other

158
Q

Query forms

A
  1. what is here

2. where is this

159
Q

what is here, query

A

use identify tool

160
Q

where is here, query

A

select by attributes

161
Q

adjacency

A
  • common end point or border

- performed on line or polygon layers only

162
Q

why can’t you perform adjacency search on points

A

1D - no way of being adjacent to anything

163
Q

a query needs

A
  1. field from which the selection will take place
  2. operand
  3. attribute value or expression
164
Q

Operands

A
  • arithmetic operators

- =, >, >=

165
Q

conjunction

A
  • AND, OR, NOT

- join 2+ queries

166
Q

wildcards

A

LIKE
% - anything acceptable in its place (including nothing)
_ - means 1 character in its place

167
Q

wildcard example with %

A

“NAME” LIKE ‘%view’

to get names that end in view

168
Q

wildcard example with _

A

“NAME” LIKE ‘_atherine’

169
Q

SQL for not equal

A

less than greater than

< >

170
Q

can have a buffer outside or inside the feature

A

only polygons

171
Q

types of buffers

A
  1. Unweighted buffer (regular)

2. weighted buffer

172
Q

unweighted buffer

A

-assume uniform width

173
Q

weighted buffer

A

variable width buffer

174
Q

example of use of weighted buffer

A

pollution buffer around roads

  • width of buffer dependent on environment next to road
  • wide for residential
  • narrow for industrial

2017/2018 (7 decks)

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