Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

2017/2018 > BIOL 322 Part II > Flashcards

BIOL 322 Part II Flashcards

1
Q

volume of a cylinder

A

pi r^2 L

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

a solid under tension, over time

A

will not continue to extend over time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

mesoglea under tension over time

A

will continue to extend over time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

cross latticed fibres stress-strain curve

A

J-shaped

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

two-anchor crawling

A

alternatively push and pull against 2 anchors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

two anchors used for 2 anchor crawling

A
  1. penetration anchor

2. terminal anchor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

penetration anchor

A
  • posterior

- contract circular muscles to push anterior end of body forward

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

example organisms that use 2-anchor crawling

A

leech

caterpillar

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

bivalve 2-anchor burrowing, penetration anchor

A
  • adductor muscles relaxed
  • shell valves open
  • push against sediment
  • circular muscles contract
  • foot elongated, pushing deeper
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

bivalve 2-anchor burrowing, terminal anchor

A
  • shell valves close
  • sediment loosened up
  • terminal end of foot extends laterally (anchor)
  • longitudinal muscle contract, pulling against anchor
  • shell and body move down
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

multi-anchor crawling

A
  • eg. earthworm
  • fat metameres push against sediment
  • thin metameres push against anchor
  • can be many penetration anchors at once, ‘move’ down body like a wave
  • train of muscle contraction and relaxation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

terminal anchor

A
  • anterior

- pull on this anchor by contracting ventral lon`gitudinal muscles to bring posterior up

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

aids in gastropod movement

A

mucus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Mucus gliding

A
  • mucus is glue and lubricant depending on force
  • push foot against mucus to anchor
  • lift A end of foot, slide while pressing the rest of foot
  • put A part of food down
  • lift next segment..
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

testing banana slug mucus

A

dynamic hexometer?

  • 2 metal discs on a pole that rotate relative to each other w/ mucus btw discs
  • constant rate of strain
  • stop, strain, stop, intervals of 1s
  • record stress mucus undergoes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

results of banana slug mucus test

A
  • if strain is low enough mucus acts like glue

- hit yield point and it starts acting like a liquid/ lubricant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

mucus production cost, gastropod

A

7-26% of energy budget

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

gastropod mucus functions

A
  • chemical cues
  • foraging routes
  • defense
  • temporary adhesion
  • useful to predators
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

gastropod mucus, chemical cues

A

locate conspecifics

-ex. mating

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

gastropod mucus, foraging

A

adhesive trap

-ex. microalgae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

gastropod mucus defense

A
  • chemical defense

- ex. stop anemone nematocyst discharge (nudibranch)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

gastropod mucus adhesion

A

epiphragm of periwinkle snail

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

epiphragm

A
  • temporary structure that protects against
  • adhesion dessication in intertidal
  • predation
  • similar functions as operculum
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

gastropod mucus, predators

A

a trail to their prey

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

before shedding an exoskeleton

A

a new exoskeleton begins secretion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

arthropod exoskeleton number of layers

A

3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

layers of arthropod exoskeleton

A
  • epicuticle
  • exocuticle
  • endocuticle
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

epicuticle

A

lipids, waxes

-impermeable to water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

cuticle material

A
  • scleratized chiton

- crosslinked protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

stages of molting

A
  • cuticle begins to separate from epithelium
  • cells proliferate, animal enlarging
  • inactive chitonase secreted into space btw epidermis and cuticle
  • new exosk. secreted
  • chitonase activated
  • old endocuticle digested
  • ecdysis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

ecdysis

A

molting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

how is ecdysis (final stage) facilitated

A

-exo/endo cuticle are fractured along planes of weakness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

first layer of new exoskeleton secreted

A

epicuticle

-VIP to protect new exosk. from chitonase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

once new exosk. is secreted and ecdysis has occurred

A
  • pump up fluids under new exosk. while soft
  • make space to grow
  • before cross linking
  • release fluid once sclerotized
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

pre-formed breakage planes

A
  • where exoskeleton will split for animal to crawl out

- where carapace meets abdomen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

how to get large distal appendages out of narrow basal part of appendage in ecdysis

A
  • break down muscle myofilaments
  • up to 60% of proposes muscle
  • loss of proteins (actin)
  • not water, not myocytes
  • only chelae, not walking legs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

myocytes

A

-whole muscle fibres

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

pre-moult intermoult thin:thick myofilament ratio, crustacean cheliped ecdysis

A

pre-moult: 6 thin: 1 thick

inter moult: 9 thin: 1 thick

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

how do arthropods move in newly formed unscleretized skeleton

A

switching skeletons

  • rigid skeleton
  • hydrostatic skeleton
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

testing crab hydrostatic skeleton

A
  • string around propodus to transducer - measure movement

- pressure gauge penetrates soft exoskeleton at carpus/merus joint - measure pressure of joint fluid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

results of crab hydrostatic skeleton experiment

A
  • movement of joint corresponds w/ spike in hemolymph pressure
  • after hardening no spike in hemolymph pressure
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

flexural stiffness of soft-hard material

A

soft - low
paper - low but higher
hard - high

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

tensile strength of soft -> hard materials

A

soft: medium
paper: highest
hard: medium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

hydrostat container must be

A

-deformable but resistant to tension

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

movement during soft exosk. stage requires change to

A

how levers achieve flexural stiffness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

pre-molt flexural stiffness

A

-high material stiffness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

post-molt flexural stiffness

A

internal fluid pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

hydrostatic skeleton internal fluid, arthropods intermoult

A

hemolymph

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

chemical signal between same species

A

pheromones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

chemical signal btw different species that causes change in behaviour beneficial to producer

A

Allomones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

sessile marine invert. allomones

A
  • secondary metabolites
  • protect against predators and environment
  • unpallatable
  • toxic
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

example of secondary metabolite forming organisms

A
  • porifera
  • cnideria
  • bryozoa
  • ascidiacea
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

chemical signal between different species that causes a change of behaviour beneficial to receiver

A

Kairomones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

why defensive allomones important for sessile organisms

A

-cant limit search of pursuit phases of predator

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

allomones may provide defense against

A
  • predators (in subjugation phase)
  • space competitors
  • settling larvae of other species
  • pathogens
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

study of Porifera secondary metabolites

A
  • Caribbean sponges
  • novel 2º metab.
  • put metabolite in tasty agar tablets
  • feed to fish in lab
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

primary metabolite

A

formed in metabolic pathway

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Caribbean sponges w/ novel 2º metabolite

A

Ectyplasia ferox

Erylus formosus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Caribbean sponges novel 2º metabolite

A
  • triterpene glycoside
  • formoside
  • unpalatable or toxic
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

secondary metabolite

A

not formed directly in metabolic pathway

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

study of Porifera secondary metabolites, stage 2

A
  • anchored supports w/ ‘clothesline’ in ocean
  • dangle phytogel strips w/ squid paste and metabolite
  • monitor, weigh strips
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

other formoside use

A

-inhibit settlement of larvae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

results of study of Porifera secondary metabolites

A
  • in lab find pellets rejected

- field study: eaten, but only about half as much as control

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

formoside settlement experiment

A
  • field study
  • suspend phytogel + formicide in dishes
  • quantify % cover of fouling organisms on surface of gel
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

results of formoside settlement experiment

A
  • control 40% covered
  • treated less than 10% covered
  • p = 0.0016
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

formoside overgrowth experiment

A
  • tablet w/ 1 large depression in middle, 4 smaller at corners
  • fix aggressive space competitive sponge in middle
  • formiside in 2 corners
  • suspend in ocean
  • allow sponge to grow
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

results of formoside overgrowth experiment

A

control: 20% coverage
treated: 5%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

minimal criteria to show allomone is adaptation

A
  1. isolated chemical deters predator in palatable food
  2. effective at native concentration
  3. effective against sympatric predators
  4. appropriate anatomical distribution
  5. survival after attack
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q
  1. isolated chemical deters predator in palatable food, allomone adaptation
A

reduce confounding factors of food item

ex. spicules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q
  1. effective against sympatric predators, allomone adaptation
A

against co-occuring predators

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q
  1. appropriate anatomical distribution, allomone adaptation
A
  • repel before attack is fatal
  • eg. digestive glands - not appropriate
  • hold chemical in superficial body structures
  • eg. nudibranch cirri
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

why is survival after attack especially important, allomone adaptation

A

only way to pass on the genes!

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

spanish dancer nudibranch

A
  • undulation

- feeds on red sponge, maybe gets colour from them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

spanish dancer allomone study

A
  • extract and purify metabolite
  • add to tasty pellet in varying concentrations
  • co-occurring fish predator
  • 10 control + 10 experiment food pellets offered
  • offered in random order
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

results of spanish dancer allomone study

A

-sig. difference in treated vs control down to 0.05% concentration dry weight

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

concentration of allomone in spanish dancer body parts

A
  • highest in egg mass

- high in dorsal mantle, digestive gland and gonad

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

spanish dancer metabolite

A

dihydrohalichondromide

  • secondary metabolite
  • modified from halichondromide primary metabolite in sponge prey
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

why is secondary metabolite in internal organs

A
  • difficult to separate purely

- passing through digestive organs onto egg mass

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

de novo synthesis

A

made by the organism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Melibe de novo allomone

A

terpenoid synthesis from acetate building blocks

  • tag radioisotopes to follow synthesis
  • novel feeding strategy
  • sensory cell detects predator
  • release product through pore
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

saponin

A
  • detergents
  • punch holes in biological membrane
  • disturb cholesterol
  • if predator bites will rupture mouth membranes - irritant
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

echinodermata saponin

A
  • toxins
  • de novo synthesis, direct acquisition
  • common in sea cucumber, sea star
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

sponge microbes

A
  • up to 40% of sponge volume

- diverse phylotype

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

spone cyanobacteria

A
  • found right under pinacocyte (outer membrane)

- cyano. toxin release may fn to resist predators and competitors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

bryostatin

A
  • found in Bugula bryozoan and nudibranch predator
  • evidence that it is metabolize by bacteria
  • may also have use in humans for anti-tumor treatment
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

other indirect selection of chemical defense, amphipod domicile

A
  • cut discs of algae to make tent domocile
  • choose chemically defended kelp
  • put in arena with different kelps to see which it chooses
  • select toxic majority of time
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

other indirect selection of chemical defense, arctic amphipod

A
  • hold on to clione with pereiopods

- assume clione have chemical defense

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

clione chemical defense test

A
  • fish acceptance/ rejection tests
  • separate clione and fish chunks – clione rejected every time
  • grind up clione and add to fish pellets – clione still rejected
  • amphipod w/ and w/o clione – again, clione rejected
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

aposematic colouration

A

advertises toxicity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

testing ascidian tadpole larvae aposematic colouration

A
  • bright orange
  • high E supply, good food source
  • add larvae to tank w/ co-occurring predator fish
  • 90% rejected
  • 80% survival
  • feed unpigmented larvae to same predator
  • 37% rejected
  • suggests predator remembers colouration and avoids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

testing predator memory of aposematic colouration

A
  • offer fish aposematic tadpoles until they are completely ignored = experienced fish
  • inexperienced fish offer non-pigmented prey, accept
  • inexperienced fish offered bad tasting fish - rejected or ignored
  • experience fish given good tasting, dyed orange prey, ignored = remembered
  • inexperienced f given tasty dyed fish - majority accepted
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

mimicry

A

edible animal resembles noxious animal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

Hydrostat examples

A
  • tube feet
  • lophophore
  • tentacles
  • annelid body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

hydrostat criteria

A
  • fluid maintained at constant V
  • deformable container
  • container must resist tension
  • wrapped in muscle and connective tissue
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

muscular hydrostat

A
  • unconventional
  • solid mass of muscle tissue, no fluid compartment
  • cephalapod arm
  • mollusc foot
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

other types of hydrostat

A
  • any incompressible material at constant V
  • eg. parenchymal cells of turbellarian
  • squid tentacle
  • elephant trunk
  • tongue
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

skeleton features in stiff and hydrostat

A
  • support
  • transmit force by muscle shortening
  • re-extend antagonistic muscles
  • exploit mechanical advantage (force or displacement)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

muscle shortening and re-extending in hydrostat example

A

earthworm movement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

change in shape for cylinder of constant volume, D vs L

A

non-linear

  • exponential
  • diameter decreases rapidly with small increase in length
  • then diameter asymptotes w/ further increase in L
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

mechanical advantage in hydrostat

A
  • a small change in L makes an exponential change in D

- displacement advantage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

squid tentacles

A
  • 8 arms maximize force to hold prey

- 2 tentacles elongated to maximize displacement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

how squid maximize displacement

A
  • having large length

- -> a small change in D (at large L) = a large change in L

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

squid tentacle muscles

A
  • longitudinal: undergo large extensions, obliquely striated

- circular muscles, transverse muscles, radial muscles: speed! - x-straited (shorter shortening)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
104
Q

wall tension

A
  • circumferential tensile stress = longitudinal tear

- axial tensile stress = circumferential tear

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
105
Q

circumferential tensile stress =

A

= 2 X axial tensile stress

= (internal pressure x radius of cylinder) / wall thickness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
106
Q

consequences of circumferential tensile stress

A
  • highly dependent on r
  • the larger the radius the greater the tension (like a heart shaped balloon)
  • easier to inflate long thin structures if widened first (tentacles, tube feet)
  • must limit/ control shape change
  • must prevent ruptures
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
107
Q

collagen

A

stiff, fibrous tissue

  • steep stress/strain curve
  • requires lots of tension to extend
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
108
Q

direction of collagenous connective tissue fibres

A
  • circumferentially? - avoid circum. tear, but needs to expand that way
  • lattice work not parallel to direction of tension
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
109
Q

latticework of fibers

A
  • initially give readily
  • as approach parallel, requires a lot of stress to extend further
  • J-shaped S/S plot
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
110
Q

role of collagenous connective tissue

A
  1. reinforce walls of container

2. control and limit shape change

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
111
Q

mesoglea time-dependent properties, extension vs log time

A
  • t_o: little-no extension, behaves like solid

- t_1: minutes-1h later, begins extension

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
112
Q

stiffening with spicules

A

stiffening dependent on:

  • spicule density
  • spicule size
  • spicule form (anisometric)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
113
Q

mesoglea S/S plot w/ w/o spicules

A

w: large slope increasing

w/o: very small slope

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
114
Q

what is mesoglea

A
  • connective tissue
  • collagen reinforced
  • extracellular matrix
  • highly hydrated
  • random confirmation, tangled, non-branched proteoglycan polymers
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
115
Q

sea cucumber tissue hardening

A

ossicles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

stress/strain plot tells us

A

stiffness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
117
Q

anisometric

A

axis i > axis j

-orient in direction against tension

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
118
Q

Phases of predatory act

A
  1. Search and detection
  2. Pursuit
  3. Subjugation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
119
Q

abiotic conditions to defend against

A
  • temperature variability
  • UV
  • exposure
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
120
Q

biotic conditions to defend against

A
  • competition
  • overgrowth
  • predation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
121
Q

red queen hypothesis

A

RQ ordered nave to run on ground moving backwards faster and fast - must continually adapt to change

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
122
Q

meaning of RQ hypothesis

A

predators and prey interact in a way that imposes selection in a reciprocal fashion
-force each other to continually adapt

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
123
Q

search and detection phase defences

A
  • camouflage, transparency, crypts, mimicry
  • size, hiding
  • peripheral vision
  • activity patterns, migration
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
124
Q

pursuit stage defense

A
  • running: pattern, speed

- pooling behaviour (grouping)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
125
Q

subjugation phase defense

A

armour, body size, autonomy, toxicity, secretions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
126
Q

selection in the prey is generally strongest in which phase

A

whichever phase their predator is weakest in

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
127
Q

hypotheses of adaptation must be tested

A
  1. phylogeny
  2. effectiveness
  3. consider other ideas
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
128
Q

test hypotheses of adaptation, phylogeny

A

is trait derived or ancestral

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
129
Q

test hypotheses of adaptation, convergence

A
  • lab and field experiments
  • correlation in space and time
  • evidence of convergence
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
130
Q

types of defensive traits

A
  • structural
  • chemical
  • behavioural
  • induced
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
131
Q

induced defences =

A

phenotype plasticity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
132
Q

parts of gastropod shell

A 
protoconch
whorl
spire
body whorl
aperture
outer lip
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
133
Q

shell-crusher strategies

A
  • apertural lip crush
  • spire crush
  • apertural lip peel
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
134
Q

aperture lip crush

A
  • outer lip of shell most vulnerable

- crush in molar

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
135
Q

spire crush

A

-put spire close to fulcrum of claw to increase force advantage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
136
Q

gastropod shell defences against crushing predators

A
  • overall thickening of shell
  • thickened apertural lip
  • apertural teeth
  • narrowed aperture
  • reduced spire
  • thickened tubercles and varices
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
137
Q

helmet snail, adaptation to shell-crushers

A
  • apertural teeth strengthen outer lip

- very narrow aperture\

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
138
Q

cone snail, adaptation to shell-crushers

A
  • reduced spire
  • thick walls
  • dissolve old interior layers
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
139
Q

cowries, adaptation to shell-crushers

A
  • no spire
  • aperture teeth
  • very narrow aperture
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
140
Q

tubercles, adaptation to shell-crushers

A

studs, spines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
141
Q

porcupine fish

A
  • related to puffer
  • very powerful jaws
  • robust teeth
  • prey = tropical gastropods
  • RQ hypothesis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
142
Q

effect of tubercles on crushing attempts

A
  1. increases effective diameter
  2. reduce stress
  3. focus force
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
143
Q

effect of tubercles on crushing attempts, increase effective diameter

A
  • can’t get shell as close to fulcrum

- reduce mechanical advantage of jaws

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
144
Q

effect of tubercles on crushing attempts, reduce stress

A

-distribute force over broader are of shell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
145
Q

effect of tubercles on crushing attempts, focus force

A

-increased chance of damaging predator

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
146
Q

critical size

A

size that gastropod must be to avoid predation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
147
Q

critical size of congeneric species pair (+/- spines)

A

-gastropods w/ strong spines have lower critical size

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
148
Q

experimental manipulation of tubercles

A
  • file off to compare same species, reduce confounding factors
  • critical length smaller in spines gastropods
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
149
Q

survey of gastropod family Thiadidae

A
  • structures only found below 40º latitude

- no structures above 40º

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
150
Q

correlation between Thiadidae structured fishes and predators?

A
  • 2/3 of crushers are found in tropics
  • gastro. w/ adapted shells appear in fossil record around Triassic
  • shell crushers around Jurassic
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
151
Q

Lake Tanganyika

A
  • 2nd largest FW lake
  • gastropods and brachyuran crabs
  • FW gasto. usually have thin shells, not here
  • for any given shell length snails had thicker shell than snails not in lake T
  • same w/ crab chela
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
152
Q

SEM provides

A
  • magnified images
  • 3-dimensions
  • shape and surface topography
  • large depth of field
  • non-reversed images
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
153
Q

how to get 3-dimensionality with 2D image

A
  • shading!
  • light reflectance
  • exploit the fact that our eyes are adapted to sun shining down on objects
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
154
Q

SEM basic instrument components

A
  • electron gun + pole piece
  • lenses
  • scan coil
  • secondary electron detector
  • monitor
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
155
Q

compound light microscope basics

A
  • light, glass
  • E source focused and bent by condensor
  • tranparent specimen for light to pass
  • objective lense expands beam and therefore image
  • magnification achieved by glass concavity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
156
Q

SEM basics

A
  • electrons , EM lense
  • energy source is e-
  • focus beam w/ magnetic field
  • scan coils rapidly deflect beam back and forth
  • secondary e- emitted
  • magnification is aspect ratio between actual and output screen
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
157
Q

rapid scan rate, SEM

A
  • low resolution

- real time response to image adjustments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
158
Q

slow scan rate, SEM

A
  • high resolution

- delayed response to image adjustments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
159
Q

how to focus SEM

A
  • intermediate scan rate

- reduce area of scan

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
160
Q

defensive behaviours

A
  • avoidance
  • escape
  • retaliation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
161
Q

distinguishing features between avoidance and escape/retaliation behaviour

A

nature of the stimulation

-direct vs indirect

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
162
Q

avoidance behaviour, olive snail

A
  • local species
  • surface at night
  • burrow during day
  • enormous foot
  • diel activity pattern
  • protection from visual predators (birds, sea stars)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
163
Q

olive snail experiment

A
  • aquarium w/ sediment
  • seastars in separate tank w/ water flow through
  • cue induces hiding
  • continued cue reduces surfacing behaviour
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
164
Q

Zoea larvae

A
  • anomurans, brachyuran
  • multiple zoea stages
  • 1st stage no migration
  • 1st stage responds to shadow reflex = sinking behaviour
  • ctenophore kairomone ?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
165
Q

zoea larvae experiment

A
  • zoea in glass tube
  • different levels of irradiance reduction
  • descending density increases at 50% light attenuation = shadow reflex
  • add ctenophore kairomones == sig. difference in descension response at even lowest attenuation level
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
166
Q

Sabellidae escape behaviour

A

-startle reflex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
167
Q

startle reflex criteria

A
  1. all-or-none response
  2. high threshold
  3. short latency
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
168
Q

startle reflexes governed by

A

giant axons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
169
Q

startle reflex, all-or-none

A
  • non-graded

- don’t withdraw partially

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
170
Q

startle reflex, high threshold

A

-need strong stimulus to elicit

not feather duster, sabellidae

171
Q

startle reflex, short latency

A
  • minimal t period btw stimulus and response

- rapid neural circuit due to giant axon

172
Q

velocity of action potential, V =

A

kD^e
k = constant
D = axon diameter
e = exponent (usually around 0.5)

173
Q

from velocity of action potential equation,

A

V highly dependent on diameter

-giant axons significantly faster

174
Q

giant axons often dedicated to

A

defensive behaviour

175
Q

Aglantha digitale, giant axons

A
  • hydromedusa
  • local, open ocean
  • unique fishing behaviour
  • giants axons unique use – 2 uses
176
Q

Aglantha fishing behaviour

A
  • slow swim
  • circular muscle contractions of bell
  • swim up in water column
  • flip over w/ tentacles up
  • descend slowly
  • catch plankton w/ tentacles
177
Q

Aglantha escape swim

A

-rapidly swim away when disturbed

178
Q

Aglantha giant axons

A
  • ring giant: interneuron, nerve ring around periphery of bell
  • radial motor giants: giant motoneurons
179
Q

interneuron

A

neutron between sensory and motor neurons to send messages btw the two

180
Q

study of Aglantha giant axon

A
  • measure action potential w/ electrodes

- find 2 different action potential speeds on same axon

181
Q

action potential

A

-depolarization by opening of ion channel, often Na

182
Q

how does Aglantha have different action potential speeds

A
  • 2 different types of ion channels
  • fast a.p. = Na ion
  • slow a.p. = Ca ion
183
Q

Tritonia nudibranch, neurons

A
  • seapen feeder
  • dv flexion if touched by seastar
  • pattern generator neurons create repetitive movement
184
Q

lobster defenses

A
  • escape, tail-flip
  • retaliation, claws, antennae
  • defense, armour
185
Q

spiny lobster

A

long, spiny second pair antennae, damaging

186
Q

slipper lobster

A

tank-like
thick carapace
tenaciously clinging periopods

187
Q

lobster tail-flip

A

clawed lobster: giant axons mediated

spiny, slipper: no giant axon

188
Q

3 lobster ‘types’ offense vs defense experiment

A
  • tether animals to stakes
  • 5 intact of each, 5 modified
  • slipper modified: tape back grasping claw
  • Spiny: cut off second pr. antennae
  • Clawed: remove cheliped
  • record mortality after 4 and 24 h
189
Q

results of lobster offences vs defense experiment

A
  • manipulated had higher mortality in all species
  • slipper lobster had very low mortality in all cases
  • clawed had highest mortality in all cases
  • retaliation not the best defense
190
Q

induce defences, conditions for selection

A
  • heterogenous environment
  • reliable cue signaling predator risk
  • conditional phenotype reduces predation risk
  • costly when predator absent
191
Q

Nucella induced defense of egg capsules

A
  • 2 islands near Bamfield
  • different thickness of egg capsule walls
  • island 2 has higher density hole-drilling isopods
192
Q

specific time in development that organism can respond to envrionmental cue

A

window of competence

193
Q

Rotifer features

A
  • paired ciliated cephalic lobes, foot w/ 2 toes and adhesive pedal gland
  • jaw apparatus (mastax) lined w/ chitonous teeth (trophi)
  • many have rigid body w/ reinforcing cytoskeletal elements = lorica
194
Q

Keratella induced defense

A
  • freshwater rotifer
  • less than 1mm
  • some w/ greatly elongated posterior spine
  • chemical affluent from Asplanchna induces long posterior spine in Karetella
195
Q

Asplanchna rotifer sp.

A
  • feed on karatella

- parthenogenic offspring - diploid egg develops in mother w/o fertilization

196
Q

what kind of chemical does Asplanchna release to cause change in Keratella

A

kairomone

197
Q

observations of predator-prey interactions between rotifers

A

attack: encounter - no significant difference btw long spine and short spine
capture: attack - very sig. diff., LS captured about 1/2, SS about 3/4
ingested: capture: sig. diff.

198
Q

why asymmetrical spine elongation?

A

-possibly to conserve energy, if 1 does the trick why waste E on 2

199
Q

Branchionus variabilis rotifer morphological AND behavioural polyphenism

A
  • rotifer
  • elongate spines (both) in presence of pred. cue
  • facultative epibiont
  • Asplanchna cue induces behaviour change – attach to cladoceran for protection
200
Q

Costs of induced defense, rotifers

A
  • eggs? females amictic so no effect on egg production

- but does reduce mictic success– less resting eggs w/ higher [kairomone]

201
Q

Rotifer life cycle

A
  • amictic female (2n) can reproduce w/o fertilization over and over
  • in bad conditions amictic female produces mictic (1n) – fertilization – resting egg (mictic fm)
202
Q

Cladoceran inducible defense

A
  • Daphnia spp.
  • ‘exuberant morphs’
  • helmets, armour
  • defense against gape limited predators
203
Q

Resource allocation, Cladoceran inducible defense

A
  • exoskeleton growth requires ca. 20% more energy for crested
  • reduces reproductive output by ca. 60/400 lifetime eggs
204
Q

Membranipora membranacea inducible defense

A
  • bryozoan, asexual, oldes zooid at centre, colony has 4mth life-span
  • nudibranch predator colour matches
  • calcified sidewalls
  • in presence of Doridella (nudi.) peripheral zooids respond- develop spines around walls
205
Q

cost of Mm spine growth

A

reduce Mm growth rate

reduce nudibranch feeding

206
Q

nudibranch chemical that causes induced defense in Mm

A

kairomone

207
Q

Acanthina gastropod

A
  • gastropod predator of barnacles
  • have labial tooth
  • ram tooth into barnacle operculum plates
208
Q

Acanthina induces what defense in Cthamalus

A

bent morphology

209
Q

Possibilities for occurrence of bent Cthamalus morphology

A
  1. barnacles w/ fixed bent genotype selectively recruit to substrate w/ snail mucus
  2. barnacles have conditional bent phenotype induced by snail mucus
210
Q

to test Possibilities for occurrence of bent Cthamalus morphology

A
  • plastic plate, drill depressions for settlement
  • place in field, wait for settlement, map
  • put predator mucus on plate
  • wait again
  • re-map and compare
211
Q

if barnacles have inducible morphology

A

expect the same amount of bent morphology in the recruits before and after predator presence – no selective recruitment

212
Q

if barnacles w/ fixed bent morphology are selectively recruited

A

-expect more bent recruits after mucus –recruit bent barnacles in presence of predator

213
Q

results of testing possibilities for occurrence of bent Cthamalus morphology

A

3 plates show near equal proportions before and after

= no selective recruitment

214
Q

cost of bent morphology, Cthalamus shell mass : body length

A

= slightly lower slope in bent morphology, some effect but not alot

215
Q

cost of bent morphology, Cthalamus # eggs : body length

A
  • significant difference
  • bent morphology much less eggs, particularly at low body size
  • trade-off w/ fecundity
216
Q

Nucella induced defense,

A

crabs feed on by peeling back apertural lip

  • predator affluent induces aperture lip thickening
  • Predator + prey in flow through tank to Nucella = even greater change! detect affluent of damaged conspecific
217
Q

Littorine, periwinkle snail induced defense

A
  • European green crap voracious invasive predator
  • crab induces thicker shell
  • thicker shell also appears to be occurring over time
218
Q

induced predator phenotype, green crab

A
  • if fed thicker walled snail – w/i a few moults develop more powerful chelipeds
  • -arms race
219
Q

light =

A

particles of energy

= photons

220
Q

photons travel in

A

waves

221
Q

visible light

A

400 -650nm

222
Q

to perceive light must have

A

photopigments

223
Q

most common photopigment

A

rhodopsin

224
Q

what do photopigments do

A
  • absorb photons
  • open ion channels
  • change cell membrane voltage (depolarize, hyper polarize) = bioelectric potential
225
Q

quality of our visual field =

A

visual accuity

226
Q

ability to distinguish details, visual

A

resolving power

-how close together 2 dots can come and still be resolved as separate

227
Q

Visual acuity depends on

A
  1. resolution

2. contrast

228
Q

Resolution

A

-image detail, resolving power

229
Q

how resolution impacts visual acuity

A
  • density of photoreceptors (high density = high detail)

- focusing ability of lens

230
Q

contrast, impact on visual acuity

A
  • differential light absorbance (btw object, bckgrd)

- differential light scattering (btw obj, backgr)

231
Q

example of contrast

A
  • words written in a box
  • no contrast
  • can’t see
  • no difference in light absorption and scattering of words relative to background
232
Q

seeing transparent tissues

A
  • we can see because of contrast

- differential light absorption/refraction of the tissue

233
Q

photic zone of open ocean

A

euphotic = 200m

234
Q

disphotic zone

A

200-1000m

  • sufficient light for vision but not PP
  • mesopelagic
235
Q

zone of no light

A

Aphotic

bathypelagic

236
Q

options for avoiding search/detection phase in the pelagic zone

A
  • mirrored surfaces
  • counter shading/illumination
  • transparency
  • all minimize contrast
237
Q

Effectiveness of mirrored surfaces, pelagic

A
  • if predator approaching from side

- effective b/c background homogenous

238
Q

counter shading/illumination

A
  • lighter ventral surface (predator bellow)
  • light emitting cells on ventral surface
  • reduces silhouette/shadow
239
Q

how to achieve counter shading

A

Guanine crystals

-2 types: cuboidal, flat

240
Q

cuboidal guanine crystals

A
  • small, jumbled
  • scatter reflected light
  • matte white surface
  • suitable for lightening ventral surface
241
Q

flat guanine crystals

A
  • large, overlapping
  • reflect light uniformly
  • shiny
  • eg. fish scales
242
Q

transparency

A
  • camouflage regardless of predator angle
  • multiple convergences
  • highly correlated w/ pelagic lifestyle
243
Q

examples of transparency

A
  • hydromedusa
  • larvacean
  • ctenophore
  • pteropod
244
Q

why no transparency in terrestrial habitats

A

-refractive indices
air = 1 , SW = 1.35, cytoplasm = 1.34 - 1.55
-much easier to achieve in water
-terrestrial organisms require more robust (often opaque) structures to hold up against gravity
-more places to hide in terrestrial
-UV protection

245
Q

how to achieve transparency

A
  1. thinness
  2. eliminate pigments
  3. surface micro-bumps
  4. ultrastructural specialization
246
Q

thinness

A

thin tissue = less opportunity for light refraction

247
Q

Problems with eliminating pigments

A
  • eyes require melanin
  • food - digested tissues are opaque
  • sunscreens - seen by UV vision
248
Q

Phronima sedentaria transparency

A

hyperiid amphipod

  • fibre optic eye - smaller, simpler, less pigment
  • eat tunicate and hide in its tunic
249
Q

fibre optic eye

A

crystalline cone – focus light down to reticular cells – minimizes needed eye size

250
Q

how to ‘hide’ gut contents, transparent organisms

A
  • red gut epithelium

- particularly protects against bioluminescent prey

251
Q

why use red tissues

A
  • bioluminescence typically 470nm (blue-green) -doesn’t penetrate red
  • also b/c red absorbed first in water column?
252
Q

problem w/ sunscreen and transparency, experiment

A
  • FW fish preying on daphne w/ photoreceptors
  • videotape both in aquarium
  • pursuit distance = when fish turns and pursues prey
  • PD same max w/ and w/o UV
  • w/o UV distribution shorter tails, higher max
  • more shorter PD w/o UV
253
Q

Copepod sunscreen carotenoids

A
  • astaxanthin
  • scavenges free radicals (ROS)
  • when fish predator is present reduce level of pigment
  • trade-off
254
Q

surface microtuberances, transparency

A
  • help reduce contrast
  • reduces ability to see organism outline, blurs outline
  • less surface area to refract light
255
Q

Bioluminsecence

A
  • 80% of pelagic ocean animals
  • major light source in mesopelagic
  • mostly blue emission (470nm)
  • most NOT from bacteria
256
Q

bioluminescence original evolutionary origin

A
  • antioxidant hypothesis
  • originally likely to scavenge for ROS
  • oxidation gives off light (side effect)
257
Q

original bioluminescent molecule

A

Luciferin

258
Q

luciferin

A
  • absorbs photons of light
  • electron excitement
  • electrons fall, give off E as light when oxidized
  • requires light to give off light at longer wavelength
  • requires luciferase or photoprotein
259
Q

bioluminescence definition

A
  • chemical reaction w/i organism that emits light

- create light w/o light

260
Q

luciferase

A

enzyme that catalyzes luciferin reaction

261
Q

photoprotein

A
  • molecule w/ binding sites for luciferin and O2

- co-factor (usually Ca++) causes conformational change of photoprotein allowing interaction

262
Q

functions of bioluminescence

A
  1. communication, sexual signal
  2. attraction of prey, lure
  3. illumination of prey, flashlight
  4. defense from predator
263
Q

functions of bioluminescence, predator defense

A
  • startle
  • counterillumination (hiding)
  • misdirection
  • distractive body part (dropped off)
  • burglar alarm
264
Q

Burglar alarm hypothesis

A

organism 3 preys on 2, preys on 1

  • 1 emits light when attacked by 2
  • light attracts 3 to eat 2
265
Q

biomineralization

A

-organisms produce solid from inorganic precursor

266
Q

mineral vs biomineral

A

-biominerals are composites = mineral + organics

267
Q

biomineralization in

A 
Archae
Bacteria
Protoctista
Fungai
Plantai
Animalia
268
Q

mineral

A
  • solid consisting of inorganic anion + cation
  • defined by chemical composition AND morphology
  • crystalline or amorphous
269
Q

Example of different crystal morphologies

A

CaCO3 occurs as vaterite, calcite, aragonite, or amorphous

270
Q

organic component, biomineral

A
  • helps control biomineralization process
  • becomes incorporated into mineral component
  • can influence mechanical properties
271
Q

types of biominerals

A
  • ca. 60 different types
  • common cations: Ca, Si, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu
  • common anions: carbonate, phosphate, sulphate
272
Q

functions of biominerals

A
  • protection from predator, environment/ armour
  • feeding (radular teeth, jaw)
  • support/ stiffen skeletal
  • anchorage
  • storage for important ions
  • sensory reception
  • statocyst
  • magnetite crystals in magnetotactic bacteria
  • diatom frustules
273
Q

biomimetic

A

synthetic methods that mimic biochemical processes

274
Q

mechanism of biomineralization

A
  1. space delineation
  2. subdivision of space by org matrix
  3. generating saturated solution
  4. nucleation
  5. growth and shape modulation
  6. cessation
275
Q

mechanism of biomineralization, space delineation

A
  1. sponge spicules, space inside ring of cells
  2. gorgonian spicule, space inside one cell
  3. echinoderm ossicles, space inside multinucleated cell
276
Q

Bivalve shell, space delineation

A

EPS - extrapallial space

  • between mantle fold and shell biominerl
  • where ions are deposited and diffuse
277
Q

Bivalve shell, minerals at site

A
  • CO3 from active transport of CO2 from environment

- Ca++ brought in using ATP powered Ca/H antiporter within mantle fold

278
Q

Mytilus prismatic shell layer

A

-organic matrix surrounding calcite crystals

279
Q

Nacreous gastropod shell layer

A

-aragonite crystals

280
Q

gastropod glycoprotein material and polymorph formed

A
  • original: aragonite, calcite

- Forn: vaterite

281
Q

crack propogation, composite material

A
  • much more energy for cracks to persist across different materials
  • softer materials generally dissipate crack energy
282
Q

plywood construction

A
  • longitudinal axis shifted in each successive layer
  • stiffens (increase flexural stiffness)
  • strengthens by resisting crack propagation
  • mollusc shell has same form
283
Q

examples of biomineral functions

A
  • statocyst
  • magnetite crystals in magnetotactic bacteria
  • diatom frustules
284
Q

Energy to propogate crack

A

proportional to diameter at tip of crack

-having a space in the structure (eg. holes) increases the diameter of the crack, therefore increases required energy

285
Q

why shell dissolution (organisms own shell)?

A
  1. enlarge aperture
  2. enlarge living space
  3. buffering
  4. remodelling
  5. mineral recycling
286
Q

shell dissolution, enlarge aperture

A
  • waterflow
  • keyhole limpet
  • scaphopod
287
Q

shell dissolution, enlarge living space

A

-cone snail dissolves inner layers of overgrown shell walls

288
Q

shell dissolution, buffering

A

-anaerobic respiration creates acids that must be buffered

289
Q

shell dissolution, remodeling

A
  • may lose or change shell at different life stages

eg. nudibranch

290
Q

shell dissolution, mineral recycling

A

dissolve and store CaCO3 to recycle into new exoskeleton

291
Q

OA

A

increased atmos CO2

  • 40% of ff’s in atmos.
  • pH of ocean 0.1 lower than pre-industrial
  • pH 0.3-04 units lower by 2100
  • depression of carbonate ion concentration
292
Q

ocean carbonate reactions

A

CO2+H2O–H2CO3
H2CO3 –H+HCO3
HCO3- – H + CO3 2-
H+ + CO3 2- — HCO3 -

293
Q

results of ocean carbonate reactions

A
  • lower pH
  • increase in [H] results in -reduction of carbonate ions (CO3 2-)
  • increase in bicarbonate (HCO3 -)
  • calcium carbonate dissolution
294
Q

CaCO3 dissolution and saturation horizon

A
  • dissolution causes saturation horizon to shoal threatening to dissolve previously deposited structures
  • CCD higher form aragonite
295
Q

amount of marine species that are molluscs

A

23%

296
Q

OA ecosystem impacts

A
  1. Food webs
  2. Competitive interactions
  3. Ecosystem services
  4. economic importance
297
Q

OA impact, pteropods example

A
  • pelagic, huge swarms, large importance in food web

- aragonite shell, begins to dissolve w/i 48 h or understaurated waters

298
Q

mollusc embryonic shell

A
  • initially amorphous CaCO3
  • less able to isolate calcifying fluids
  • strong kinetic demand for CaCO3 precipitation
  • limited energy budget
299
Q

consequence of initially forming amorphous CaCO3 shell

A

-less stable than calcite, aragonite

300
Q

why are larvae less able to isolate calcifying fluids

A

periostracum is more leaky than adult form

301
Q

sea urchin and OA

A
  • sea urchin lives across variety of CO2, pH

- larvae have calcareous spicules supporting larval arms– fundamental to functions

302
Q

Adaptive capacity to respond to OA, study

A
  • collect sea urchin adults
  • fertilize eggs, rear large under normal and elevated CO2
  • measure features
  • larval development and morphology showed little response
  • frequency of allele transcripts (skeleton building genes) substantially different
  • natural selection in low pH condition
  • genetic variation could be reservoir of resilience
303
Q

for a population to respond to change

A
  1. Genetic variation w/i population

2. Population robust w high reproductive capacity

304
Q

groups of broadcast spawners

A 
almost all:
- echinoderms
-cnidarians
-bivalves
some mollusc
305
Q

Problem w/ external fertilization

A
  • high risk of wasted gametes

- only a few hours in water until non-viable

306
Q

test magnitude of external fertilization problem

A
  • inject sea urchin w/ 0.5 M KCl to make spawn
  • have eggs waiting at different distances away
  • determine amount fertilized, easy to count, fertilization envelope
307
Q

test magnitude of external fertilization problem, results

A

20% or less fertilization at distance greater than 20cm

308
Q

test magnitude of external fertilization problem, implication

A

two urchins must be spawning at near exact same time and location to be successful

309
Q

fertilization success may be increased if

A
  • cluster of organisms spawning

- higher current speed (greater than 0.2 m/s)

310
Q

allee effect

A

-population density effect on rate of population increase (#offspring, individual)

311
Q

strategy to minimize gamete waste

A
  1. reproductive aggregations
  2. synchronized release of gametes
  3. sperm attractants
312
Q

synchronized release of gametes

A
  • key to respond to environmental cue

- eg. corals, hydrozoans

313
Q

Spirocodon hydromedusae spawning cue

A

light

  • sperm develop beneath epidermal epithelium
  • loss of microvilli = pore formation – allows sperm release
  • gaps appear in response to onset of darkness and heal shut w/i 40 min
  • darkness must remain for 30+ minutes
314
Q

GBR spawning

A
  • mass spawning event
  • all release gametes at same time in ‘balls’, packets of eggs and sperm
  • 5-8 days after new moon in Oct.
315
Q

Spawning cue for GBR

A
  1. increased SW T, photoperiod
  2. Lunar cue
  3. Light-ff cue (only after sunset)
316
Q

why October?, GBR

A

wind speed lowest in Oct.

  • influences currents
  • strong wind dissipate gametes too much
317
Q

Caballes spawning cue

A
  • crown of thorns starfish
  • polyp predator
  • various cues in lab to try to induce: T increase
  • males have lower threshold to release than fm in most scenarios
318
Q

sperm attractants

A
  • spawned eggs release chemical signals to modify sperm movement
  • species specificity
319
Q

sperm attractant molecules

A

Ascidians: suffocated steroid
Sea urchin: peptides
Abalone: tryptophan

320
Q

Abolone sperm attractant experiment

A

-tryptophanase shows sperm attractant improves fertilization success

321
Q

acrosome reaction

A
  • sperm have acrosomal membrane and and enzymes

- after contacting egg jelly, membrane breaks down, acrosomal enzymes digest jelly coat so coat sperm/egg can fuse

322
Q

Bindin

A
  • gamete recognition protein of sea urchin
  • exposed on acrosomal process acrosome reaction
  • bindin receptors on vitelline envelope of egg
  • facilitate conspecific gamete binding
323
Q

simultaneous fusion of 2+ sperm

A

polyspermy

324
Q

consequence of polyspermy

A

-fatal for egg

325
Q

blocking polyspermy

A

fast- membrane depolarization upon fusing, temporary

slow: cross-linking of vitelline envelope

326
Q

male density and reproductive failure in spawning organisms

A

low density = low sperm concentration

high density = polyspermy

327
Q

different alleles of bindin

A
  • LOW sperm density = fertilization enhancement

- HIGH sperm density = minimizes polyspermy

328
Q

Red sea urchin bindin alleles

A

LD - greater success at low m density

HD - greater success at h.d.

329
Q

change in concentration of Red sea urchin bindin alleles over time

A
  • animals 200 ya had higher LD – lower population density
  • animals now have higher HD frequency – higher population density
  • increased risk of polyspermy
330
Q

Aplysia fertilization

A

California sea hare

  • simultaneous hermaphrodites
  • copulate (internal fert.)
  • breeding seasons (spring-summer)
  • reproductive aggregations (12-15 individuals)
  • egg laying (packed in jelly string, initially sticky)
  • complex life history
331
Q

Aplysia life cycle

A
  • eggs w/i capsule embedded in string of jelly
  • veliger: to 34 d, planktotrophy
  • metamorphosis 34-37 doh
  • juvenile 40-60 doh
  • adult has siphon, parapodium, tentacles
  • adult lays egg mass
332
Q

hermaphroditic challenges

A

must:

  • keep gametes separate
  • prevent self-fertilization
  • store self and received sperm
  • have fertilization chamber
  • encapsulate eggs
333
Q

hormonal control of egg laying

A
  • initiates egg laying behaviour, back and forth waving of head to to attach egg mucus to substrate
  • Aplysia abdominal ganglion (visceral)
334
Q

abdominal ganglion

A
  • surrounded by connective tissue sheath

- contains bag cells

335
Q

bag cells

A
  • neurosecretory cells
  • neurons w/ axons
  • secrete egg laying hormone (ELH)
  • self-activitating
336
Q

ELH

A
  • small peptide (36 a.a.’s)
  • released from vesicles during bursts of bag cell depolarization
  • autocrine and endocrine activity
  • initiates ovulation
337
Q

ELH paralogs

A

Aplysia genome has 5 paralogs

  • duplication and divergence
  • 1 undergoes tc, translation, processing in bag cells - generate ELH
    1. tc, tl in albumen gland = attraction
338
Q

attractin

A

pheromone
peptide
58aa

339
Q

other Aplysia peptide pheromones

A

enticin
temptin
seductin

340
Q

contact pheromones

A

physical contact w/ recently laid egg mass intiates release of ELH

341
Q

Carcinus reproduction

A
  • European green crab
  • copulation window - post- female ecdysis
  • guard mate
  • penis from base of last walking leg
  • pleopods 2 push sperm along groove into female
  • hold brooded eggs onto abdomen w/ pleopods
342
Q

Carcinus uridine disphosphate

A

UDP

  • in fm urine
  • waste product of chitin biosynthesis
  • i.e. signal of ecdysis
343
Q

consequence of UDP production

A
  • activates male mating behaviour
  • fm sex pheromone
  • males show seasonal sensitivity/response to UDP (highest in mid season)
344
Q

basic life history patterns

A
  1. planktotrophic larvae
  2. lecithotrophic larvae
  3. Aplanktonic (direct development)
345
Q

planktotrophic vs lecithotrophic fecundity

A

plankt: high
lecith: low
aplanktonic: very low

346
Q

Brisaster life history

A
  • heart urchin

- facultative planktotroph

347
Q

Gunnar Thorson

A
  • Danish marine biologist
  • pioneer in larval ecology
  • influential publications
348
Q

Thorson’s law

A
  • species producing feeding larvae rare at higher latitudes and deep depths
  • -trend exists but many exceptions
349
Q

optimal life history theory

A

Vance 1973

  • important variables affecting recruitment of juveniles:
    1. fecundity
    2. developmental time
    3. mortality risk
  • all depend on egg size
350
Q

optimal life history theory, fecundity

A

-negative linear rltship w/ egg size and fecundity

351
Q

optimal life history theory, development time

A

negative linear

egg size vs development time

352
Q

optimal life history theory, mortality

A

positive linear

development t, mortality risk

353
Q

Vance prediction for optimal egg diameter

A

U-shaped

-smallest and largest have highest recruits

354
Q

problems with Vance theory

A
  1. empirical data

2. phylogenetic reconstructions

355
Q

protonephridium

A
  1. terminal cell = ultrafiltration

2. duct cells = selective absorption

356
Q

Neptunea egg capsule

A

1 viable embryo

many nurse eggs

357
Q

Liracbuccinum egg capsule

A

also have nurse eggs but variation in viable embryos and # nurse eggs

  • 1 v.e., 130-170 n.e.
  • 3-12 embryos, 10-40 n.e.
358
Q

Liracbuccinum hatching size vs hatchlings per capsule

A
  • negative linear

- less hatchlings = greater hatching size

359
Q

parental provisions of eggs

A

yolk
albumen
nurse eggs

360
Q

value of encapsulating egg material, Conus

A

-length of t w/i egg capsule directly correlated w/ thickness and puncture resistance of egg capsule

361
Q

larval defensive strategies

A
  • spines

- crown-of-thorns seastar: large pink larvae w/ saponins

362
Q

majority of inverts life history

A

planktonic

back to paleozoic

363
Q

why have pelagic larval stage`

A
  • ancestry
  • dispersal
  • resource availability
  • predation avoidance
364
Q

benefits of dispersal

A
  • resources
  • oxygen
  • reduce competition
  • mating – heterogeneity
365
Q

larval duration adapted for dispersal

A

very short

366
Q

test abundance of predators in pelagic relative to benthos

A
  • float brachyuran larvae in water on line weighted down
  • one line at bottom, one at 3m
  • glue larvae onto line
  • pull up after 3hrs
  • tally number eaten
367
Q

results of predator abundance test

A
  • more benthic larvae lost

- more larvae lost at night

368
Q

expected consequences of dispersal

A
  1. extensive gene flow btw distant populations
  2. low speciation rates, minimal local adaptation
  3. low extinction rate
369
Q

why does dispersal cause low extinction rate

A
  • spreads risk

- survive local catastrophe

370
Q

evidence for expected consequences of dispersal, gene flow

A

low genetic differentiation among populations

371
Q

evidence for expected consequences of dispersal, minimal local adaptation

A

extinction, speciations in fossil record

372
Q

evidence for expected consequences of dispersal, low extinction rate

A

spread of invading species

373
Q

test of genetic differentiation, nudibranchs

A
  • 2 species, similar in many ways
  • rocky shores of Great Britain
  • feed on bryozoans
  • annual life cycle
  • spawn during winter
  • 1 has longterm planktotrophic larvae (3mth), other 1-2 days
  • map distribution
374
Q

test of genetic differentiation, nudibranchs, long-term planktotrophic larvae

A
  • gene w/ 3 alleles
  • alleles expressed in pretty similar frequencies over large area
  • lots of genetic exchange
  • long time, lots of time for exchange
375
Q

test of genetic differentiation, nudibranchs, short-term planktotrophic larvae

A

gene w/ 2 alleles
much different allele frequencies around isles, even populations close together
-high heterogeneity
-consistent w/ short-lived larvae

376
Q

gastropod shell, embryo, larvae, etc.

A

transitions in shell whorls mark stages of development

377
Q

Thorson’s shell apex rule for gastropods

A

protoconch retained at apex of shell

-size and shape of protoconch indicates planktotrophy or lecithotrophy

378
Q

duration of fossil gastropod species, planktonic vs non-planktonic

A

planktonic species appear to have persisted significantly longer, 12-4my
-non-planktonic max 6-8, majority 1-2my

379
Q

neogastropod pelagic speciation

A

35-65 MYa

  • Atl coast
  • trend towards increased non-pelagic species
  • speciation?
380
Q

Varnish clam

A
  • native to Korea, Japan
  • introduced to Vancouver harbour 1980s
  • spread to SOG and Washington by 1998
381
Q

evidence of unexpected consequences of dispersal

A
  1. test of species selection
  2. genetic structure
  3. paradox of rockall
382
Q

Phylogenetic test of species selection

A
  • must know phylogeny to consider something speciation
  • if ‘burst’ of speciation after a trait evolved then probably trait selected for
  • if trait is on different tree branches then not selected for, not speciaition
383
Q

test speciation in cone snails

A
  • 70 species
  • aplanktonic secondarily adapted for found on different branches
  • no evidence of selection
384
Q

unexpected consequences of dispersal, genetic structure

A
  • unexpected genetic heterogeneity

- more genetic variation along coastline than expected

385
Q

Paradox of Rockall

A
  • NAtl, 400km W of land
  • 30My isolation
  • 110ft diameter, 63ft high
  • lots of inverts live there
  • must have dispersal stage to get so far..
  • but all aplanktonic..
  • only self-recruits would be likely to keep it populated
386
Q

Conus, Cape Verdes Archipelago

A
  • 600km off W Africa
  • 50 endemic species
  • aplanktonic
  • 2 clades
  • 2 founder species, egg mass rafted to islands
387
Q

local recruitment

A
  • larval retention
  • self recruitment
  • may have been founder of wide dispersal but return phase was lost
  • if parents successful in habitat then probably good
388
Q

mechanism to control larval dispersal and recruitment

A

-environmental cues

389
Q

flood tide transport

A
  • Ebb tide: low S, Megalopae remain on bottom
  • Flood tide: M ascend into water column as S rises
  • turbulence promotes continued swimming
  • end of flood tide, M descend as salinity drops
  • brought back to parental habitat
  • take advantage of prevailing currents
390
Q

settlement

A
  • behavioural process
  • cessation of swimming
  • adherence to substrate
  • REVERSIBLE
391
Q

Metamorphosis

A
  • developmental process
  • loss of larval characters
  • emergence of functionalization of juvenile characters
  • NONREVERSIBLE
392
Q

metamorphic competence

A
  • stage of life

- maturation great enough for metamorphosis

393
Q

delay of metamorphosis

A
  • competence and induction

- possiblity variable per species

394
Q

consequences of delay of metamorphosis, negative, abolone

A

Abalone

  • lecithotrophic larvae
  • 11 days
  • delay in absence of inducer
  • reduced post-larval survival
395
Q

consequences of delay of metamorphosis, no effect, Phestilla nudibranch

A
  • facultative planktotrophy
  • delay in absence of metamorphic inducer
  • no effect found on post-metamorphic lifespan or fecundity
396
Q

consequences of delay of metamorphosis, positive effect, moon snail

A
  • continue to grow after reaching competence

- if meta. delayed, get larger, release from predators, may increase survival

397
Q

Metamorphogenesis

A
  1. loss of cells/tissues
  2. De novo differentiation of cells/tissues (set-aside cells)
  3. remodelling of larval cells/tissues
398
Q

why is considering metamorphogenesis important

A
  • sometimes metamorphosis is a minimal change of tissues - ex. slipper limpet only loses velar lobes
  • sometimes its a huge change! ex. sea urchin!
399
Q

sea urchin metamorphogenesis

A
  • catastrophic metamorphosis
  • juvenile rudiment small mass of tissue inside of larvae
  • complete change of form must be accompanied by changes in internal cells/tissues
400
Q

induction of settlement and metamorphosis

A

1 associative

  1. gregarious
  2. avoidance
    - all chemical cues
401
Q

Associative settlement and metamorphosis cue

A
  • prey
  • habitat quality indicator
  • water flow indicator
402
Q

Abalone induction cue examples

A
  • chemical from red coralline algae
  • phycobiliprotein
  • indicator of good water flow
403
Q

environmental induction cue come from conspecific

A
  • sexual reproduction
  • good habitat indicator
  • protection of new recruits
404
Q

Associative settlement and metamorphosis cue

A

environmental induction cue come from an organism of different species

405
Q

gregarious settlement and metamorphosis cue from

A

conspecifics

406
Q

gregarious tube-dwelling polychaete

A
  • Phragmatopoma

- cement holding tubes together induces metamorphosis

407
Q

sand dollar gregarious settlement

A
  • adult chemical component induces S, M
  • adults exclude tanned
  • tenaid predator of larvae
  • S, M w/ adults offers protection
408
Q

Avoidance settlement and metamorphosis

A
  • environmental cue
  • inhibits metamorphosis
  • superior competitor
  • predators
409
Q

thickness around boundary layer as Re # increases

A

becomes thinner

410
Q

mechanisms to capture suspended particles

A 
filtering
scan and trap
direct interception
adhesion
ciliary mechanisms
411
Q

critically important for oyster reef success

A

height

412
Q

primary source of DOM in ocean

A

exudate from phytoplankton

413
Q

epidermal epithelial cells of marine inverts have intrinsic membrane proteins in the apical cell membrane that enable import of dissolved organic molecules against concentration gradient

A

sodium-dependent co-transporter

414
Q

endosymbiont acquisition of microbial symbiont from parent

A

vertical transmission

415
Q

enzyme in hosts of photosynthetic endosymbionts to prevent ROS damage

A

superoxide dismutase

416
Q

excess photosynthate released by corals as

A

mucus

417
Q

Solemya reidi bivalve have ctenidia populated by prokaryotic endosymbionts that utilize

A

hydrogen sulfide as energy source

418
Q

skeletons perform functions by accommodating forces, they may

A
  1. resist force
  2. transmit force
  3. store energy of force
419
Q

mechano-enzyme directly responsible for muscle cell shortening

A

myosin

420
Q

obliquely-striated muscles have greater __ than cross-striated

A

working length

421
Q

internal projection of arthropod exoskeleton analogous to tendons

A

apodemes

422
Q

describe S/S plot of highly resilient material

A
  • S/S plots during loading and unloading would be exactly the same
  • length of material before and after would be same (extension)
423
Q

internal fertilization accomplished either by

A
  • transfer of spermatophores

- direct introduction via organ (penis)

2017/2018 (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions