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2017/2018 > BIOL 322 > Flashcards

BIOL 322 Flashcards

1
Q

What suspension feeders consume

A
  • phytoplankton
  • zooplankton
  • bacterioplankton
  • POM
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2
Q

suspension feeding unique

A

-almost entirely unique to aquatic environment

some spiders suspension feed pollen

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3
Q

organisms who spend entire life in the plankton

A

holoplankton

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4
Q

plankton sizes

A 
picoplankton 0.2-2um
nanoplankton 2-20um
microplankton 20-200um
mesoplankton 0.2-20 mm
macroplankton 2-20 cm
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5
Q

filter feeding

A

a type of suspension feeding

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6
Q

the goal of suspension feeding

A

to capture and ingest very small particles from a very large volume of fluid

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7
Q

Suspension feeding steps

A
  1. water transport
  2. particle capture
  3. transport particles to mouth
  4. ingestion
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8
Q

organisms who spend one component of their life history in the plankton

A

meroplankton

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9
Q

Net Gain (E) =

A

consumed - costs

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10
Q

Consumed =

A

quality x quality

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11
Q

Reynolds number

A
  • relative importance of viscous to inertial forces

- determines physical characteristics of fluid flow around object

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12
Q

Reynolds number =

A

(velocity x object size x density) / viscosity

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13
Q

flow vs velocity

A

low velocity = laminar flow

high velocity = turbulent flow

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14
Q

laminar flow reynolds number

A

less than 10

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15
Q

increased velocity (Re #)

A

= increased Re #
= inertial forces > viscous forces
= turbulence
= smaller boundary layer

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16
Q

boundary layer

A

‘coating’ of water that is not flowing

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17
Q

turbulent flow reynolds number

A

above 200,000

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18
Q

barnacle cirri

A

biramous, cetose

  • appendages
  • long axis = ramus
  • branches = citi
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19
Q

ways to induce passive water flow

A
  1. Bernoulli’s principle
  2. Dynamic pressure
  3. Viscous entrainment
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20
Q

what is inducing passive water flow

A

-organisms exploiting flow of water to augment role of water flow through body

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21
Q

Bernoulli’s principle

A

inverse relationship between fluid speed and pressure

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22
Q

Bernoulli’s principle in the ocean

A
  • water mass in contact with ocean floor is slowed due to drag = high pressure
  • water masses above ocean floor successively faster = lower pressure
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23
Q

exploiting Bernoulli’s principle in the ocean

A
  • fluids flow from high to low P

- raise body parts to lower P areas and water will naturally flow over them

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24
Q

sponge parts

A

ostia - holes in sides of body that water flows in
osculum - hole in top that water flows out
choanocytes - flagellated cells that line the interior and induce water flow

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25
Q

what is viscous entrainment

A

-water molecules are adhesive due to H-bonds

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26
Q

taking advantage of viscous entrainment

A

utilize adhesion to ‘pull’ water out of chimney

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27
Q

dynamic pressure

A

kinetic energy of a fluid

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28
Q

Dynamic Pressure/ Viscous entrainment example

A

Styela montereyensis, stalked tunicate

  • elaborate long flexible stalk
  • in high flow: recurved buccal siphon
  • stalk bent over in high flow, water forced into opening
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29
Q

stalked tunicate experiment

A
  • free to move or forced in upright position by mesh bag
  • free to feed for 24hr
  • clean water, catch excretions
  • free to move organisms had higher excretions, fed more, therefore had more water move through body
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30
Q

exploit active and passive feeding

A

acorn barnacle
-active in low flow, rake cirri through water to reduce boundary layer
porcelain crab
-rake 3rd pair maxilliped through water

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31
Q

Balanus phenotypic plasticity

A
  • log ramus length decreases linearly with water velocity

- shorter in high velocity

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32
Q

Advantage of short legs in high velocity (barnacle)

A

more robust to wave damage

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33
Q

Madracis mirabilis

A
  • scleractinian colonial coral w/ branched fingers
  • in low flow polyps on opposite side of flow trouble feeding
  • high flow polyps on opposite side can feed (turbulence), others are flattened
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34
Q

how to tell that which coral polyps are feeding

A
  • in flume with unidirectional water

- feed brine shrimp cysts (dark brown) can see them inside polyp

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35
Q

Spinoid marine annelid

A

facultative suspension feeder

  • tube in sand/mud
  • lay palps on ground, cilia pick up particles (deposit feeding)
  • if current velocity increases, raise palps and coil
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36
Q

Advantage of long legs in low water velocity (barnacle)

A
  • more surface area

- Bernoulli’s principle

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37
Q

Why does Spionid coil palps

A
  • increase length of palp that is normal to flow

- larger diameter relative to straight palp, increase Re

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38
Q

particle flux

A

of particles that move past point during any period of time

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39
Q

Spionid experiment

A
  • start: high particle flux, suspension feeding
  • add filter, water v same
  • less suspension feeders
  • remove filter, more suspension feeders
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40
Q

what does Spionid experiment show

A
  • they are not suspension feeding b/c of water velocity
  • changing feeding mode to do particle flux
  • coincides w/ water v b/c low v allows particles to settle, high entrains them
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41
Q

Particle Capture Mechanisms

A
  1. filtering
  2. scan and trap
  3. direct interception
  4. ciliary mechanisms
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42
Q

filter feeding

A
  • device meant to have water flow through

- particles larger than mesh/pore size are retained

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43
Q

scan and trap feeding

A

isolate parcel of fluid containing food particle

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44
Q

scan and trapper

A

copepod

  • swim on back
  • detect particle
  • fling open 2nd maxillae – change Re
  • suck particle in
  • fling maxillae shut
  • expel water
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45
Q

direct interception

A

surface of capture device is adhesive

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46
Q

filter feeding examples

A

barnacle

porcelain crab

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47
Q

direct interception example

A

Daphnia
-feeding combs (setae and setules)
-surface charge adheres to small particles
Brittle Star
-sticky tube feet, mucous net extended between tube feet

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48
Q

Ciliary feeding

A
  • bivalve ctenidia

- long lateral cilia pass food to food groove

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49
Q

reef-forming suspension feeders

A
  • corals, oysters, mussels, tube worms
  • usually sessile
  • usually large aggregations
  • ecosystem engineers
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50
Q

reef ecosystem services

A
  • Habitat complexity
  • pelago-benthic nutrient cycling
  • water clarity
  • Mixing of dissolved gases
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51
Q

habitat complexity (reefs)

A
  • increased settlement surface
  • increased biodiversity
  • niche space
  • hiding space
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52
Q

nutrient cycling (reefs)

A
  • ingest PP
  • bring E into benthos
  • couple energy and nutrients btw water column and benthos
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53
Q

Benthic boundary layer

A

-benthic suspension feeders need downwelling mechanism to get particles

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54
Q

getting past benthic boundary layer

A
  1. flow-generated mixing

2. biomixing

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55
Q

flow-generated mixing

A
  • surface irregularities generate turbulence

- highest turbulance at greater flow speed

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56
Q

biomixing

A
  • exhalent jets create vortices

- most helpful at low current speed

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57
Q

reef restoration experiment

A
  • often fail

- test if threshold reef height is critical determinant of self-sustaining

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58
Q

plankton

A
  • small organisms (up to 10cm)
  • live in water column
  • cannot swim against current
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59
Q

example of passive suspension feeders

A
  • hydroids
  • corals
  • crinoids
  • brittle stars
  • sea cucumbers
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60
Q

streamline

A

viscous forces keep fluid together and flowing in smooth lines

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61
Q

inertial forces

A

break fluid up into uneven streamlines

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62
Q

active suspension feeders, examples

A
  • lamellibranch bivalves
  • sponges
  • ascidians
  • bryozoans
  • polychaetes
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63
Q

reef height and restoration effort experiment

A
  • build experimental reef of empty shells of various heights
  • “blocks” on sides
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64
Q

oyster reef experiment results

A

higher reefs have less sedimentation

-0.3-0.4m threshold for success (at this site)

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65
Q

reefs and sedimentation

A
  • sedimentation reduces rugosity

- turbulance reduces sedimentation

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66
Q

DOM

A
  • does not settle out of fluid over time
  • very heterogeneous in distribution and compilation
  • lots of organic carbon
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67
Q

DOM abundance

A

30-100 umol/kg

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68
Q

organic carbon in biosphere

A

plant biomass ca. 800x10^9

dissolved in seawater 1600x10^9

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69
Q

primary DOM source

A

phytoplankton

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70
Q

measuring rugosity

A
  • drape fine link chain over

- measure length of chain needed from one side to the other

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71
Q

Is DOM utilized by organisms

A
  • first proposed in 1906 (August Putter)

- measured in 1950s (Grover Stephens)

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72
Q

measure uptake of DOM

A
  • high [ ] inside organism
  • particles must move against steep [ ] gradient
  • measure movement w/ radioisotopes (C14)
  • must make sure organism taking up DOM not bacteria (add antibiotics)
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73
Q

HPLC

A

high pressure liquid chromatography

  • measures very very small amounts of a product
  • molecules percolate through cylinder of beads
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74
Q

DOM uptake

A
  • not linear with [ ]
  • saturates
  • indicative of enzyme
  • Na dependent co-transporter
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75
Q

Na dependent co-transporter

A
  • Na continually pumped out of cell
  • Na constantly diffuses back in
  • co-transporter has binding sites for Na + 1 other molecule
  • Na movement coupled
  • depends on Na/K pump (and ATP) to create this gradient
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76
Q

does DOM make significant contribution to nutrition

A
  • measure larvae uptake
  • quantify E in yolk
  • find larvae burn more E than available in yolk (yolk = 71%)
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77
Q

DOM uptake example

A

Parastichopus californicus

  • seasonal atrophy of gut
  • reduce metabolic rate in times of low nutirents
  • where does E come from to rebuild gut?
  • find increased isotope [ ] in respiratory tree
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78
Q

holobiont

A

host + all microorganisms present

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79
Q

coral reefs

A
  • 1/4 of marine biodiversity

- mostly in nutrient poor waters

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80
Q

symbiont hosts

A
  • cnidarians
  • molluscs
  • turbellarians
  • acoels
  • poriferans
  • protozoans
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81
Q

“algae”

A
  • unicellular photosynthetic organisms
  • dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae)
  • chlorophytes (zoochlorellae)
  • cyanobacteria
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82
Q

symbiodinium

A
  • 9 clades (A-I), subclades
  • each w/ unique tolerances
  • once thought to be one species
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83
Q

symbiont location

A

intracellular vacuole in gastrodermal cells = symbiosome

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84
Q

acquisition of symbionts

A
  1. asexual reproduction
  2. sexual reproduction
  3. horizontal transmission
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85
Q

sexual reproduction, symbionts

A
  • vertical (maternal) transmission
  • 15% of acquisitions
  • mother places symbionts in egg
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86
Q

horizontal transmission, symbionts

A
  • newly acquired by each generation

- 85% of acquisitions

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87
Q

symbiont host benefit

A

-obtain 90% of symbionts photosynthate
-promote calcification rates
-

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88
Q

demonstration of translocation of photosynthate to host

A
  • sodium bicarbonate w/ radioisotope
  • NaH14CO3 -> Na+ + H14CO3-
  • H14CO3- -> H2O + 14CO2
  • find 14C in animal tissue, animals can’t fix C
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89
Q

Symbiont benefit

A
  • require carbon concentrating mechanism

- N source

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90
Q

carbon concentrating mechanism

A

host membrane-bound proton pump

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91
Q

why does host need carbon concentrating mechanism

A
  • CO2 from host respiration is not enough
  • CO2 is limiting in aquatic environment
  • CO2 dissolves and forms bicarbonate, charged molecule can’t pass through membranes
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92
Q

CO2 in seawater

A

CO2 + H2O –> H+ + HCO3-

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93
Q

membrane-bound proton pump

A
  • ATPase
  • pumps H+ out
  • H+ combines w/ bicarbonate to turn back into CO2
  • Carbonic anhydrase (CA) catalyzes reaction
  • may occur at every membrane (4)
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94
Q

symbiont N

A
  • assimilate host’s ammonia
  • host anthozoans import nitrate from SW (unusual)
  • 3rd partner: N-fixing cyano.
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95
Q

truly beneficial for symbiont?

A
  • zooxanthellae double every 3days in culture, every 70-100 days in symbiosis
  • host may regulate symbionts N access
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96
Q

cost to host

A
  • UV exposure

- ROS

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97
Q

PAR

A

photosynthetically active radiation

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98
Q

full spectrum sunlight

A

PAR + UVR (UVA and UVB)

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99
Q

UVA and UVB

A

UVA: 400-320nm
UVB: 320-280nm
-B more damaging

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100
Q

UV damage

A
  • damages DNA, protein, lipids

- creates ROS

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101
Q

UV protection

A
  • sunscreen
  • antioxidants
  • photoactivated DNA repair enzymes
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102
Q

Sunscreen

A
  • MAA
  • animals can not produce
  • different types, unique max abs.
  • more MAAs = broad spectrum protection
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103
Q

MAA

A 
mycosporine-like amino acids
-cyclohexane ring
-conjugated to amino acid or amino alcohol 
Shikimate pathway
-plants, bacteria, fungae
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104
Q

primary MAA

A
  • synthesized by dinoflagellate
  • short half life
  • can be upregulated by UV light
  • not a lot of types
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105
Q

secondary MAA

A
  • modified primaries
  • longer half life
  • broader coverage for host and symbiont
  • not up-regulated
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106
Q

ROS

A

reactive oxygen species

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107
Q

ROS generated by

A
  • photochemical reactions of photosynthesis

- hyperoxia

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108
Q

hyperoxia

A
  • pure oxygen damaging in excess
  • electron loss = O2^- = superoxide radical
  • scavenges electrons = oxidative damage
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109
Q

normoxia

A

150 mmHg

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Perfectly
110
Q

light energy pathways in organism

A
  1. photochemistry = ROS
  2. Fluorescence
  3. Heat dissipation
  4. Chl reaction = ROS
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111
Q

ROS solution

A

superoxide dismutase

-detoxifies ROS

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112
Q

detoxify ROS

A

O2^- + H+ – w/ superoxide dismutase –> H2O2 + O2

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113
Q

catlase

A

breakdown H2O2

2H2O2 –catalase –> 2H2O + O2

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114
Q

what happens to photosynthate

A

90% translocated to coral

-40% of that released in mucus

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115
Q

coral mucus

A

Insoluble: upwells, particle trap, concentrates particles, descends, enriched
soluble: DOM, bacteria substrate

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116
Q

Coral bleaching, symbiont loss hypotheses

A
  1. adaptive bleaching hypothesis
  2. host differential tolerance hypothesis
  3. response to ROS damage
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117
Q

coral bleaching, stresses

A
  1. thinning of ozone – increased UV
  2. pollutants, eutrophication
  3. ocean acidification
  4. global warming ***
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118
Q

DHW

A

degrees heating weeks

  • combines increased T and duration of exposure
  • number of º above average for each week
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119
Q

adaptive bleaching hypothesis

A
  • expel symbiont to get a more suitable one

- presumes clade surviving in water is better adapted to stress

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120
Q

Chiriqui Panama corals

A

2 bays, one exposed to higher T variations

-switch from more of C clade to all D during ENSO and then regain some C after

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121
Q

why switch to D clade

A
  • D more resistant to high T

- C more efficient

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122
Q

Host differential tolerance hypothesis

A

-corals differ in physiological capacity to withstand high T

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123
Q

evidence of host differential tolerance hypothesis

A
  • fore reef vs back reef corals in Indo-Pacific
  • back reef high variability, fore reef moderate variability
  • no difference in C:D clade ratio
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124
Q

Transplanted Indo-Pacific corals

A
  • transplanted corals adapted to their surrounding, HV lost their tolerance in MV
  • evidence of acclimation
  • no change in proportion of C:D
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125
Q

Response to ROS damage

A
  • current hypothesis
  • elevated T’s cause severe oxidative stress-
  • bleaching is a collapse of the delicate balance of the partnership
  • symbiont becomes toxic to host b/c host can no longer tolerate ROS
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126
Q

Siboglinidae

A
  • hot vent tube worms
  • trophosome derived from gut tissue (no gut)
  • bacteriocyte cells contain H2S oxidizing bacteria
127
Q

sign of CB cycle occurring

A

RuBisCo

128
Q

evidence of bacterial metabolism in vent worm

A
  • S in trophosome
  • TEM: trophosomal cells packed w/ bacteria
  • assay for sulfide oxidation enzymes (benzyl viologen)
  • assay for RuBisCo
  • sulfide stimulation of 14CO2 fixation
129
Q

Solemya readi

A
  • gutless bivalve
  • under logging boom, burrow in anoxic sed.
  • sulfide oxidizing bacteria in gills (thiotrophic)
  • large foot to pull in H2S from sed.
130
Q

gutless oligochaete

A
  • bacteria btw cuticle and epihelium
  • vertical transmission (mother)
  • sulfide defense, nourishment
131
Q

sulfide toxicity

A

metabolic toxin

  • binds to cytochrome oxidase
  • shuts down electron transport
132
Q

Defense against sulfide toxicity

A
  • switch to anaerobiosis temporarily (less E)
  • external coating of sulfide-oxidizing bacteria
  • sulfide-binding hemoglobin
  • sulfide-binding proteins
  • partial oxidation of slide in mitochondria
133
Q

methanotrophic bacteria ex

A

bathymodiolus

  • mussels fueled by gas
  • methanotrophic bacteria in gills
  • thiotrophic bacteria
134
Q

thioautotrophic bacteria

A
  • E source = H2S

- C source = CO2

135
Q

methanotrophic bacteria

A

E source = CH4

C source = CH4

136
Q

mwethanotroph methane oxidation

A

CH4 – CH3OH – CH2O – CHOOH – CO2

Methane – methanol – formaldehyde – formic acid – carbon dioxide

137
Q

Osedax

A

bone-eating worms

-contain heterotrophic bacteria in roots that produce enzymes that can degrade organic substrates within bones

138
Q

Xylotrophic

A

‘wood eating’

  • shipworm symbiont
  • cellulose/lignin E and C source
  • capable of N fixation
139
Q

shipworm

A
  • wood boring bivalve

- 2 clades

140
Q

teredo worm

A

shipworm

  • elongate, worm-shaped body
  • shell valves specialized as cutting tools
  • line burrow w/ calcareous coating
141
Q

Skeleton functions

A
  • protect
  • support
  • maintain shape
  • facilitate movement
  • anchorage
142
Q

skeletons perform their functions by

A

accommodating forces

143
Q

accommodating forces

A
  • resist force
  • transmit force
  • store energy of forces
144
Q

types of forces

A

tension
compression
shear

145
Q

how skeletal elements accommodate force depends on

A
  • shape

- material properties

146
Q

tension examples

A
  • ropes
  • byssal threads
  • tendons
  • spider webs
  • tentacles
147
Q

sheets (forces)

A
  • accomodate tension in all directions
  • good for distributed loads
  • not good for point loads
  • ex. bat wing
148
Q

invertebrate skeletal sheet examples

A
  • medusa bell
  • beetle elytra
  • chiton shell plates
149
Q

3D skeletal structure

A
  • solid beam
  • hollow cylinder
  • sponge column
150
Q

coarse skeletal material classification

A
  • Rigid: stiff, solid
  • Pliant: flexible solid
  • Hydrostatic: fluid, constant volume
151
Q

precise skeletal material classifications

A
  1. strength
  2. extensibility
  3. stiffness
  4. toughness
  5. Resilience
152
Q

extensibility

A

-how much does material extend when it reaches its breaking stress

153
Q

Young’s modulus

A

= stiffness

  • slope of stress-strain curve
  • measure of ability of a material to withstand changes in length when under lengthwise tension or compression
154
Q

high Young’s modulus

A

= high stiffness

-needs more force to deform

155
Q

toughness

A
  • work to extend
  • area under the stress-strain plot’
  • ability of material to absorb E and deform without fracturing
156
Q

strength

A

ability to withstand load without plastic deformation

157
Q

resilience

A

ability of material to absorb E when deformed and release upon unloading

158
Q

Material properties of skeletons important points

A
  1. Animals typically have many different types of skeletal components
  2. Skeletal components are often composites of multiple materials
  3. Material properties of composites can be complex
159
Q

example of Animals typically have many different types of skeletal components

A

sea urchin

  • biomineralized endoskeleton
  • connective tissue
  • hydrostats
160
Q

example of Skeletal components are often composites of multiple materials

A

mollusc shell is a composite of protein and mineral

161
Q

Material properties of composites can be complex

A

stress-strain curve may not be linear

162
Q

muscles

A
  • shortening machine
  • apply tension
  • tensile force transmitted through rigid skeletal element or incompressible fluid at constant V
163
Q

muscle performance parameters

A
  1. speed of shortening
  2. maximum tension
  3. effective length range
  4. twitch frequency
  5. endurance
164
Q

flicking of crab attendees (muscle)

A
  • high shortening speed
  • low max tension
  • short length range
  • high twitch freq.
  • high endurance
165
Q

burrowing bivalve adductor muscles

A
  • high max tension
  • slow shortening speed
  • short working range
  • very low twitch frequency
  • very high endurance
166
Q

differences in muscle performance facilitated by

A
  • contractile component
  • control component
  • energy-supplying component
167
Q

contractile component of invert muscles

A
  1. speed of shortening
  2. maximum tension
  3. effective length range
168
Q

muscle structure

A
  • actin myofilament
  • myosin myofilament
  • arranged in sarcomeres
  • between z disc
169
Q

thick filament

A

myosin

170
Q

sarcomere

A
  • myosin filaments arranged inside of acting filaments
  • minus ends of actin at midline
  • plus ends of actin end on z disc
171
Q

control component of invert muscle

A
  1. twitch duration/frequency
172
Q

differences in muscle performance facilitated by

A
  • contractile component
  • control component
  • energy-supplying component
173
Q

velocity

A

n(dx/dt)

174
Q

thin filament

A

actin

175
Q

energy-supplying component of invert. muscle

A

endurance

176
Q

distance

A

nx

higher n in series = greater distance and velocity

177
Q

contractile units in parallel

A

force = nf

  • higher n = greater force
  • does not impact distance or velocity
178
Q

contractile component and speed of shortening

A
  • dephosphorylation rate for myosin ATPase

- number of sarcomeres connected in series

179
Q

muscles with short sarcomeres

A

generates rapid shortening

180
Q

contractile component maximum tension

A
  • number of muscle filaments/fibres connected in parallel

- length of myofilaments

181
Q

high maximum tension =

A

long sarcomeres

182
Q

lobster chelipeds

A

major crusher

minor cutter

183
Q

lobster cheliped sarcomeres

A
  • crusher: lots of long sarcomeres

- cutter: bimodal, mostly short sarcomeres

184
Q

why long fibres

A

maximize surface tension

185
Q

myofilament arrangements

A
  1. cross straited
  2. obliquely striated
  3. smooth muscles
186
Q

smooth muscle

A
  • extremely long myofilaments
  • extremely large length range
  • very high max tension
187
Q

cross striated muscle

A
  • z discs perpendicular to muscle fibre

- not common in inverts

188
Q

obliquely striated

A
  • z discs angled relative to fibres
  • contractile units realigned
  • large effective working range
189
Q

most invertebrate muscles are

A

smooth

-soft highly extensible bodies

190
Q

smooth muscle

A
  • myosin filaments very very long
  • very long working distance
  • maximize sites for A&M binding
  • highest max tension
  • powerful but not rapid contraction
191
Q

swimming scallop

A
  • mixed muscle w/ smooth and striated to exploit speed and strength
  • less strong than other bivalves
192
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

-regulates [Ca] in cytoplasm of striated muscle cell

193
Q

myofibril

A

linear array of sarcomeres

194
Q

sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm of muscle

195
Q

Ca++ release from SER to sarcoplasm

A

-exposes myosin binding sites on actin filaments

196
Q

If Ca++ is important for A/M binding but Ca is immediately re-sequestered, how to reduce timing

A

shorten distance

  • increase amount of SER
  • twitch duration highest for high $ of myofibril occupied by SR
197
Q

to flick antenules rapidly

A

short sarcomere

198
Q

to flick antenule AGAIN rapidly

A

high density SR

199
Q

muscle energy supply

A
  1. Mitochondria
  2. Energy storage molecules
  3. Anaerobic (glycolosis)
200
Q

Burst Activity energy supply

A

Energy storage molecules

201
Q

energy storage molecules

A

phophocreatine

phosphoarginine

202
Q

high endurance muscle

A

mitochondria
aerobic
continual ATP supply

203
Q

squid mantle

A
  • continuous contractions to hydrate ctenidia
  • rapid contraction escape behaviour
  • Peripheral zone (PZ) high citrate synthase
  • Medial zone (MZ) high phosphoarginine kinase
204
Q

phophoarginine kinase

A

Energy storage molecule

-rapid bursts

205
Q

Citrate synthase

A
  • oxidative metabolism

- endurance muscles

206
Q

bivalve catch muscle

A
  • maintain adductor muscle shortening for very long time w/ minimal E expenditure
  • thick filament
  • twitchin protein
207
Q

twitchin catch

A
  • acetylcholine released by nerves
  • depolarization of sarcolemma
  • release of Ca++ from SR
  • myosin moves along actin
  • muscle shortens
  • Ca++ moves back to SR
  • decrease [Ca]
  • twitchin conformational change
  • twitchin binds A/M complex
  • AMT complex can not slide back to start
208
Q

sarcolemma

A

muscle membrane

209
Q

twitchin release

A
  • serotonin released from neuron
  • release cAMP
  • activate cAMP dependent protein kinase
  • phosphorolate twitchin
  • conformational change
  • release A/M complex
210
Q

why is animal size important

A
  1. influence available food options
  2. influence susceptibility to predators
  3. influences SA:V
211
Q

power function equation

A

y = ax^b

quantifies relationship btw any 2 dimensions as size increases

212
Q

b in power function

A

scaling exponent

213
Q

to determine scaling coefficient

A

logarithmic conversion

log y = log a + b log x

214
Q

predicted scaling coefficients under hypothesis of isometry

A

length and length: b = 1
area, length: b = 2
volume, length: b = 3
volume, area: b = 3/2

215
Q

SA, V of a cume

A 
SA = 6L^2
V =  L^3
216
Q

isometry

A

geometric similarity

  • different size
  • same shape
217
Q

allometry

A

not geometrically similar

  • different size
  • different shape
218
Q

If scaling coefficient falls within CI

A

allometric

219
Q

arthropod appendage segment

A

article/podomere

220
Q

musculoskeletal lever components

A
  1. stiff beam (solid or hollow)
  2. joint (fulcrum)
  3. muscle attachment
221
Q

high flexural stiffness

A

resistance to tension and compression

222
Q

flexural stiffness =

A

E x I
E = material stiffness
I = second moment of area

223
Q

second moment of area

A

sum of all distance of all particles away from plane of neutrality

224
Q

why a solid beam is not significantly stiffer than hollow

A

middle ‘stuff’ close to plane of neutrality, doesn’t contribute much to I
-good news for arthropods

225
Q

best way to increase FS

A

increase diameter just a little

-more points, farther from the plane

226
Q

force on under side of beam bent down

A

compression

227
Q

I varies as

A

r^4

second moment of area and therefore flexural stiffness highly dependent on radius

228
Q

I beam

A

maximize material on compression/tension side of beam

229
Q

force on upper side of beam bent down

A

tension

230
Q

Joint morphology

A
  • determines range of movement
  • condyles
  • less cross-linking of exoskeleton
231
Q

condyles

A
  • joint fulcrum
  • unidirectional movement
  • complimentary condyles at end of article
  • attach to antagonistic muscles via apodeme
232
Q

Apodeme

A

internal projection of exoskeleton

  • poorly cross linked
  • flexible
  • cartiladge like
  • analgous to vertebrate tendons
233
Q

musculoskeletal lever system mechanical advantage

A
  • speed vs. force amplification

- compare lever arms

234
Q

input lever arm

A

from fulcrum to where the force is applied

235
Q

Li/Lo greater than 1

A
  • force lever larger than load lever

- maximize force

236
Q

arthropod limbs amplify speed or force

A

distance/speed advantage

237
Q

why arthropod limbs have distance/speed advantage

A
  • fast running
  • swimming
  • increased Re
238
Q

output lever arm

A

from fulcrum to load

239
Q

what about when arthropods need force

A
  • large thing apodeme sheet

- pinnate muscles amplify force

240
Q

Li/Lo less than 1

A
  • short force lever

- maximize speed/distance

241
Q

why large apodeme

A

more sites for muscle attachment

242
Q

pinnate muscle

A
  • angled, v-shape attachment to apomere
  • less stretch area required
  • much much greater force
  • take up much less room
243
Q

Snapping shrimp

A
  • high force AND speed

- 1 enormous cheliped

244
Q

how snapping shrimp snaps

A
  • ‘slot’ in propodus filled with water
  • dactyl plunger inserted with high speed and force
  • water expelled rapidly
  • P drop below Pair in water (bernoulli)
  • air forms cavitation bubble
  • bubble collapses
  • pressure wave
245
Q

why does snapping shrimp create pressure waves?

A

stun prey

246
Q

how does snapping shrimp achieve speed and force

A

Ballistic device

  • pre-load spring with potential E
  • abruptly release load
247
Q

snapping shrimp spring

A

open dactyl – apodeme attachment point moves above pivot pt – closer muscle 1 contracts – any further tension in Cl1 loads the spring

248
Q

snapping shrimp spring snapping

A

Cl2 contracts — pulls dactyl closed a small amount – attach pt moves below pivot pt – built up tension is released

249
Q

another name for uptake of DOM

A

integumental nutrient transport

250
Q

non-integumental nutrient transport

A

intestinal nutrient transport

251
Q

typical [DOM] in temperate coastal marine water

A

30-100 umol/kg

252
Q

most common methods using radioisotopes in biology

A
  • scintillation spectroscopy

- autoradiography

253
Q

scintillation spectroscopy

A
  • E released by radioisotopes in solution is absorbed by fluorophores
  • fluorophores emit absorbed E as light
254
Q

autoradiography

A
  • radioisotopes in tissue detected with photographic emulsion
  • E released by decay reduces Ag grains in photographic emulsion
255
Q

what problem did HPLC solve in terms of DOM uptake

A

capable of measuring NET flux

-show that DOM influx ≠ efflux

256
Q

combustion constant

A

amount of energy released by a unit quantity of organic substrate

257
Q

criticism of DOM larval experiment

A

-wholly dependent on accuracy of analytical measurements

258
Q

a better DOM experiment

A

measure performance or survival in presence or absence of DOM

259
Q

animals

A

heterotrophic eukaryotes

260
Q

phyla of animals that host algal symbionts

A

at least

  • Porifera
  • Cnidaria
  • Aceolomorpha
  • Platyhelminthes
  • Mollusca
261
Q

endosymbiont

A

intracellular

262
Q

animal-algal symbiosis in fresh water

A

mostly zoochlorellae

263
Q

algal cells in animal hosts are located within

A

symbiosomes

membrane-line intracellular vacuoles

264
Q

eggs do not have symbionts, juvenile must acquire them

A

horizontal transmission

more common

265
Q

most common form photosynthate is translocated in

A

glycerol

266
Q

If symbiosis is important in tropics due to low nutrients, what is the importance in temperate zones

A

possibly due to time spent out of water

-ex. anemones spend up to 30% out of water

267
Q

signature enzyme of the Calvin-Benson cycle

A

Rubisco

268
Q

Calvin-Benson cycle

A

metabolic pathway that incorporates CO2 C atom into organic carbon

269
Q

molecular oxygen that has lost an electron

A

superoxide radical

270
Q

shorter wavelength =

A

higher energy

271
Q

why tropical corals are at higher risk of UV

A
  • UV intensity higher at lower lats.

- less DOM to quench/reflect UV = greater penetration

272
Q

how the coral host is able to maintain a symbiont

A

-suppression of the host’s innate immune system

273
Q

if host innate immune system not suppressed

A

recognize symbiont as foreign tissue – expelled or destroyed
–pathological response, not adaptive

274
Q

animal - prokaryote symbiosis example

A
  • blood feeding arthropods for B vitamin

- cows for cellulose degradation

275
Q

vent worms discovered

A
  • 1977
  • Woods Hole
  • Alvin
276
Q

tubeworm tentacles

A

branchial filaments

-high [hemoglobin]

277
Q

what does elemental sulu in the trophosome suggest

A

oxidization

-oxidized form of sulfide

278
Q

how to measure sulfide oxidation in absence of oxygen

A

benzyl viologen

  • e acceptor
  • converts colourless compounds to purple
279
Q

specialized ctenidia epithelial cells that contain intracellular bacterial symbionts

A

bacteriocytes

280
Q

sulfide oxidizing bacteria

A

thiotrophic

281
Q

wood eating

A

xylophagy

282
Q

digesting cellulose often requires

A

-symbiotic cellulolytic bacteria

283
Q

shipworm tunnel cover

A

pallet

284
Q

xylotrophic bacteria where in shipworms

A

bacteriocytes in the ctenidia

285
Q

why are shipworms of interest to biofuel industry

A

cellololytic bacteria provide second order biofuel

286
Q

ability of a beam to resist bending

A

flexural stiffness

287
Q

material stiffness

A
  • slope of the stress-strain plot

- Young’s modulus

288
Q

area of thin flexible exoskeleton that allow adjacent podomeres to move relative to one another

A

articular members rane

289
Q

fulcrum of arthropod appendage lever

A

condyle

290
Q

snapping shrimp speed of claw closure

A
  • 30,000 rpm
  • tip moves at 20m/s
  • water jets at 30m/s (100km/h)
291
Q

how a skeletal element accommodates a force depends on

A
  1. Shape

2. Material properties

292
Q

Shapes, skeletal elements

A

1D - rope
2D - sheet
3D - beams

293
Q

stress =

A

force/ unit cross-sectional area

294
Q

strain

A

-% extension of material relative to starting length

295
Q

strength

A

breaking stress

296
Q

extensibility

A

breaking strain

297
Q

toughness

A

work to breaking extension

-area under the curve

298
Q

strain recorded by

A

application of incremental series of tensional stresses

299
Q

muscles apply

A

tension

300
Q

Myosin is a

A

mechanoenzyme

-converts chemical energy (ATP) into mechanical work

301
Q

basic muscle types based on myofilament arrangement

A

striated

smooth

302
Q

striated muscle types

A
  • cross striated
  • obliquely striated (only inverts.)
  • striated organized into sarcomeres
303
Q

speed of shortening of a striated muscle fibre =

A

speed of shortening by each individual sarcomere X # of sarcomeres
(short, more, = fast)

304
Q

muscle with shortest working length

A

cross-striated fibres

305
Q

twitch duration

A

amount of t required for muscle to fully contract, then fully re-extend

306
Q

twitch duration dependent on

A

density of SR

307
Q

muscle with longest working length

A

smooth fibres

308
Q

fundamental requirement for sliding of myosin along actin

A

Ca++

309
Q

Why is Ca++ fundamental to A/M binding

A
  • tropomyosin blocks myosin binding sites on actin

- Ca++ causes conformational change in tropo. exposing the binding sites

310
Q

If the density of SR is high within a muscle fibre

A
  • diffusion distance btw SR and myofilaments are short
  • twitch duration is short
  • twitch frequency is high
311
Q

catch muscles

A
  • bivalves
  • smooth muscle component
  • adductor muscle
  • anterior byssal retractor muscle
  • maintained over long t
  • twitchin
312
Q

dephosphorylation of twitchin causes

A

it to form a complex with A/M

313
Q

mixed muscle

A
  • bundles of 2+ types of muscle cells

- ability to change performance characteristics

2017/2018 (7 decks)

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