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Biology 1010 > Genetics Lecture 1 > Flashcards

Genetics Lecture 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Genetics

A

The study of the inheritance of observable traits (e.g., blue eyes, diseases, etc.) from one generation to the next, and their effect on populations and species. It’s fairly old, like looking at crops.

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2
Q

Molecular Biology

A

The study of the molecular processes involved in the transfer of genetic information from genotype (all of our genes) phenotype (observable traits) of an organism. It’s the mechanic, it’s how does the material get transferred. It’s fairly new, ie. DNA.

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3
Q

Nature vs. Nurture

A

Nature is the things that are encoded. Nurture is the environment. Most of our traits are exposed to an effect of the environment.

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4
Q

How are blood groups influenced by nature or nature?

A

It is nature. It’s hard-coded by genetics, so it won’t be affected by the environment.

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5
Q

The example of Hydrangea flowers?

A

The action of many genes is influenced by environment. When they grow in different soil they get a different phenotype.

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6
Q

The example of fruit flies’s wings?

A

The Expression of a gene may be affected by environment. The effect of temperature on the development of wing size. Colder and smaller.

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7
Q

Determinism

A

How much of your gene determines your phenotype. Since most things are not completely determined by genetics.

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8
Q

Relationship of genotype and phenotype?

A

The genotype determines the range of phenotype. Having a separated ear lobe from face is coded by your gnome.

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9
Q

Phenotype

A

An organism’s physical and biochemical traits. ie flower colour, ear shape, disease.

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10
Q

Genotype

A

An organism’s genetic
makeup, the genetic
information contained in
genes.

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11
Q

What is the structure of DNA?

A

It’s a double helix. It’s antiparallel. There is hydrogen bonding between the base pairs. Nitrogenous bases from the “rungs of the ladder.” Missing an OH group. Has phosphate groups. Sugar-phosphate backbone forms the “ribbons.”

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12
Q

What is DNA’s diameter?

A

2nm. Also the distance between the base pairs is always the same.

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13
Q

How many bp’s per cell?

A

3 million

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14
Q

What is in the DNA?

A

The genetic info is encoded in the DNA. The sequence of different letters is how the DNA is encoded.

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15
Q

What do DNA sequences look like?

A

A very long list of letters.

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16
Q

Myoglobin

A

A protein in muscles that carries oxygen.

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17
Q

What’s the structure of a mitotic chromosomes?

A

A p telomere, short arm (p arm), centromere, long arm (q arm), and a q telomere.

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18
Q

How do chromosomes look most of the time?

A

They look messy, long, and confusing. But they are still organized in a specific way. It’s one really long molecule of DNA.

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19
Q

What the job of the telomere?

A

Prevents the DNA from unravelling. Like aglets on shoelaces.

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20
Q

How is the telomere and aging related?

A

It gets shorter each time it divides, so eventually it will start chopping into functional genes then the cell will stop dividing.

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21
Q

Senescent

A

When the cell stops dividing.

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22
Q

What’s in the centromere?

A

A lot of repeated of DNA sequence that defines that area of the chromosome. Also a Kinetochore.

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23
Q

Kinetochore

A

A motor protein that interacts with microtubules and it’s where the spindles attach too.

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24
Q

What a giemsa stain?

A

Allow us to identify which chromosome is which by the g-band pattern. The bands are not genes, just areas rich in AT base pairing (the chemical is more like to stick there).

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25
Q

What does the giemsa stain help with?

A

Identifying genetic diseases.

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26
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

Two chromosomes with the same size, shape, encode the same genes, but is not identical. The difference is in the alleles (which introduces variation). One from mother, one from father. ie the two different versions of the textbook.

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27
Q

Locus

A

A specific place along the length of a
chromosome where a given gene
is located (the two alleles). Eg. Gene for eye
colour in fruit flies.

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28
Q

Alleles

A

Alternative versions of the same gene. Eg. Each chromosome can have a different version of the eye
colour gene (red eye allele or
white eye allele).

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29
Q

When does the homologous chromosomes exist?

A

In G1 before the DNA starts to replicate (the whole cell cycle). However, locus exist at any state.

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30
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

Two DNA strands with identical nucleotide sequence one copied from the other to prepare for mitosis. They are joined at the centromere, glued together.

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31
Q

When are sister chromatids present?

A

Only when the cell prepares to divide (not G1).

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32
Q

How may errors occur when the DNA replicates?

A

1 in 10 million errors in base pairs, but they get corrected at G2.

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33
Q

What phases of the cell cycle?

A

G1, S (synthesis), G2, M. All parts can last different amounts of time.

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34
Q

G1 phase

A

Cell is living its life, eating, growing, etc. It’s looking for factors that will tell the cell it’s ready to divide.

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35
Q

S phase

A

Cell starts to replicate DNA. It also can’t true back at this point because we can’t have two sister chromatids.

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36
Q

G2 phase

A

Getting ready for M phase. Checking for errors in the two copies.

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37
Q

M phase

A

Separates the DNA and cell.

38
Q

Cytokensis

A

The division of the cytoplasm into two cells, so we don’t get one big cell that’s multi-nucleated. It’s in the M phase but not apart of mitosis.

39
Q

What’s the G0 phase?

A

Where the cell is no longer able to divide.

40
Q

Prophase

A

Where the nuclear membrane starts to break apart and the chromtids condense. The centrosomes move apart.

41
Q

Prometaphase

A

Mitotic spindle is able to interact with the chromosomes and puts them under tension. They attach to the kinetochores. Nuclear envelope is gone.

42
Q

Metaphase

A

The chromosomes line up at the plate in the middle. Glue between the two chromosomes dissolves so they are only attached the centromere.

43
Q

Anaphase

A

Once all the chromosomes are under tension they start put apart to become daughter chromatids. They then move to opposite ends of the cell.

44
Q

Telophase

A

Nuclear envelope reforms and the chromosomes unravel to its natural state.

45
Q

Daughter chromosomes

A

The new state of the sister chromosomes after they have been pulled apart.

46
Q

How many set of homologous chromosomes do mammalian somatic cells have?

A

Two sets. They are diploid (having 2n chromosomes).

47
Q

What kind of process is mitosis?

A

A continuous process. There are several inter-dependent processes occurring in parallel. It takes about 1 to 2 hours.

48
Q

What’s the purpose of mitosis?

A

To ensure that an exact copy of the parent cell’s DNA is passed on to the two new daughter cells. It’s the division of the genetic material in the nucleus.

49
Q

What would happen if we only had one big chromosome?

A

It would be very difficult to organize it. It was be too entangled and too hard to separate things out.

50
Q

Cohesion

A

When the glue between the chromosomes at metaphase and anaphase dissolves.

51
Q

What happens if the cell doesn’t wait for the chromosomes to be attached before separating?

A

Then one cell will have both sister chromatids and the other will have none. If the cell has an abnormal number of chromosomes it will program to die.

52
Q

Human Karyotyping

A

Display of condensed replicated sister chromosomes arranged in pairs. It uses colour stains to identify parts of the chromosomes. They are stopped during mitosis by chemicals that disrupt the mitotic spindle. They cut the sister chromosomes apart and places them next to each and line them up by size.

53
Q

Application of Karyotyping?

A

Identification of chromosomal abnormalities which are genetic diseases (ie. abnormal number,
abnormal arrangements). These abnormalities are associated with
certain congenital disorders (eg. trisomy 21/Down Syndrome).

54
Q

What do chromosomes consist of?

A

DNA and proteins. Lots of proteins are involved to make sure everything is organized in an ordered way.

55
Q

Histones

A

A protein found in DNA

56
Q

How many types of chromatin are in the nucleus?

A

Several conformations (types) of
chromatin exist in the nucleus of living cells.

57
Q

How does the DNA replicate?

A

They form bubbles, then many bubbles come together to separate.

58
Q

What’s naked DNA?

A

DNA is in its normal state and has no histones.

59
Q

What’s the charge of a histone and why?

A

It’s basic, so positively charged to make it easier for the negatively charged DNA to associate with it.

60
Q

What’s a nucleosome?

A

A section of DNA that is wrapped around a core of proteins. It’s 10nm in diameter. The state of DNA that’s readable by the machinery that transcribes the DNA into RNA.

61
Q

What’s an octomor?

A

It’s a group of 8 histones with DNA wrapped around it twice.

62
Q

H1

A

It regulates transcription and is bigger, it allows the machinery to read it or not. Has many important functions.

63
Q

Euchromatin

A

When it’s able to be read (octomers on a string).

64
Q

Heterochromatin

A

When the DNA is more compact and can’t be read by the machinery because the machine can’t access the part necessary to make the mRNA.

65
Q

Why does the DNA loop?

A

So it’s more compact.

66
Q

How thick is the looped DNA fibre?

A

300 nm

67
Q

How thick is one chromatid?

A

700 nm

68
Q

At which point do does DNA become transcriptionally in active?

A

When it’s a nucleosome

69
Q

Asexual Reproduction

A

Reproduction that doesn’t use sex. The genetic material is the same in the parents and in the offspring: they are clones. There are two major ways.

70
Q

Budding

A

It happens in hydras. It’s when bud grows on a parent, then eventually breaks off and grows on the ground.

71
Q

Fragmentation

A

Happens in plants and some non-vertebrate animals. It’s breaks into pieces and each piece becomes a new one. It had GPS cells that tells the other cells what type of cell it is. The plan for the rest of the organism is in every section of the organism.

72
Q

If all the cells in an organism have the same genes, can the nucleus from a differentiated animal cell be used to create a new organism (a clone), Frog experiment?

A

The potential of a cell nucleus to produce a whole organism decreases as the cell becomes more differentiated, presumably due to changes in the nucleus since the genes important for development are turned off.

73
Q

What does UV do?

A

It introduces mutation that renders the nucleus nonfunctional (dead).

74
Q

Dolly the sleep example?

A

Dolly was one out of hundreds of
injected nuclei that developed into
an embryo. Died at 6 years (euthanized) due to a lung condition and arthritis, which occurs in much older sheep. Aging faster because the cell nucleus is older.

75
Q

Gametes

A

Egg and sperm cells. They are haploid.

76
Q

Fertilization

A

Fusion of haploid gametes to form a new diploid cell.

77
Q

Zygote

A

Produced by fusion of egg and sperm contains in each cell two copies of each chromosome (diploid).

78
Q

How does the egg block out sperm?

A

Using Ca+.

79
Q

When does a women’s egg production occur?

A

Very young, they are stopped at meiosis II.

80
Q

Meiosis

A

The cellular process of reducing the diploid complement of chromosomes to a haploid complement of chromosomes to produce sex cells
(gametes), an essential process for sexual reproduction.

81
Q

Mitosis vs Meiosis

A

Mitosis: separation of the
sister chromatids Meiosis I: separation of the homologous chromosomes

82
Q

Prophase I

A

It’s very important. Crossing over happens, the change of alleles (occurs a few times per chromosome). Rest is same as mitosis.

83
Q

Metaphase I

A

Same as mitosis but with the replicated homologous pairs.

84
Q

Anaphase I

A

Same as mitosis but with the replicated homologous pairs.

85
Q

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

A

Same as mitosis but with the replicated homologous pairs.

86
Q

Synapsis

A

When the pair of homologous chromosomes line up for crossing over.

87
Q

Chiasma

A

Where the chromosomes (genes) switch.

88
Q

Does the number of genes stay the same after crossing over?

A

Yes

89
Q

Why does crossing over happen?

A

To limit the number of harmful mutations.

90
Q

Interkinesis

A

The break between meiosis I & II. No cell cycle occurs, it rests. Like women’s eggs.

91
Q

Why Sex?

A

To get new alleles and combos of alleles that have not been seen before.

92
Q

What different variations occur?

A

Gametes randomly receive one chromosome of each homologous pair (shuffles the alleles of genes on different chromosomes). Crossing over events shuffle the genes within
homologous chromosomes. After fertilization ½ DNA is paternal, ½ is maternal.

Biology 1010 (8 decks)

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