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Biology 1010 > Genetics + Evolutin > Flashcards

Genetics + Evolutin Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Genotype

A

An organisms genetic makeup, the genetic information in genes

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2
Q

Telomere

A

Region at the end of a chromatid

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3
Q

Centromere

A

The centre that holds the 2 sister chromatids together

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4
Q

Long arm

A

Longer “arms” in relation to the centromere

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5
Q

Short

A

Shorter “arms” in relation to the centromere

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6
Q

What is the general structure of a nucleotide

A

Guanine/thymine/adenine/cytosine + sugar + phosphate group

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7
Q

Base T

A

Tyrosine

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8
Q

Base G

A

Guanine

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9
Q

Base C

A

Cytosine

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10
Q

Base A

A

Adenine

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11
Q

Base U

A

Uracil

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12
Q

Karyotype

A

A display of all the chromosomes in a cell

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13
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes with the same size and shape

Includes sex chromosomes x and y

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14
Q

Diploid Cell

A

A cell that contains two sets of chromosomes

human = 23x2= 46

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15
Q

Haploid Cell

A

The result of meiosis

A cell that has only one set of chromosomes (human = 23)

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16
Q

What is chromatin made from?

A

Compacted nucleosomes

Which are made of DNA and Proteins called histones

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17
Q

What are nucleosome made up from?

A

DNA wrapped around a histones octamer (8 histones) twice

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18
Q

Alleles

A

A variant form of a gene

Humans have two alleles because they are diploid organisms

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19
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

When one allele isn’t fully expressed over its paired allele
Resulting in a third phenotype that is a mix of the dominant and recessive phenotypes
1:2:1
Ex: Red Flower + White Flower = Pink Flower

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20
Q

Complete Dominace

A

When one allele is completely dominant over its paired allele resulting in a 3:1 ratio

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21
Q

Multiple Alleles

A 
More than 2 possible alleles 
Ex: Blood Type
AA or Ai = A
BB or Bi = B
AB = AB
ii = O
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22
Q

Codominance

A

Both alleles are expressed int the phenotype resulting in a third phenotype
Ex: Red Flower + White Flower = Red Flower with white spots
RR x WW = 100% RW
Occurs in blood cells

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23
Q

Lethal Alleles

A

When a combination of two alleles is lethal
Ex: Ff x Ff = FF , 2Ff, ff
But FF combo is lethal, resulting in death of offspring
Ratio is 2:1 because of the death of one dominant phenotyped offspring

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24
Q

Dihybrid Alleles

A

When 2 alleles differ in 2 different phenotypes

Ex: DdYy x DdYy = 9:3:3:1

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25
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Adds the matching nucleotide on DNA strands

DNA replication

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26
Q

Semi-Conservative

A

One strand of the parent DNA is passed down to the next gene resulting in one new strand and one passed down

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27
Q

RNA Primase

A

Builds a primer on DNA strand so that DNA polymerase can attach to the strand
5’ to 3’

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28
Q

Helicase

A

Unwinds DNA and separates strands

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29
Q

Single stranded binding proteins (SSBPs)

A

Bind to strand to prevent the H bonds from rebinding after Helicase separates the strands

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30
Q

Leading strand and lagging strand?

A

Leading strand has DNA polymerase following behind Helicase

Lagging strand has DNA polymerase move in opposite direction of Helicase, creating Okazaki fragments

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31
Q

Phenotype

A

An organisms physical and biochemical traits

Eg: colour

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32
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A

The fragments of DNA formed on the lagging strand of the double helix
Because DNA polymerase moves in the 3’ to 5’ direction

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33
Q

DNA Ligase

A

Joins Okazaki fragments in DNA repair process

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34
Q

What can polypeptides be used for?

A
  1. Structural Proteins

2. Enzymes (anabolic or catabolic)

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35
Q

Order the stages to make proteins.

A 
Replication of DNA
Transcription
Move to ribosomes
Translation
Protein synthesis
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36
Q

Promoter

A

Part of the DNA strand that tells RNA polymerase to start transcription
Contains the TATA box

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37
Q

Terminator

A

Stop codon tells RNA polymerase to stop transcription

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38
Q

mRNA

A

A polymer of nucleotides that contains information to be converted by translation into a polypeptide

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39
Q

tRNA

A

Transfers specific amino acid defined by their anti-codon to the large ribosomal subunit

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40
Q

Elongation of Translation

A

Large subunit has E,P,A sites (exit site, polypeptide site,acceptor site)
Subunit moves along mRNA creating a polypeptide

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41
Q

Termination of Translation

A

Stop codon
Release factor protein removes stop codon and polypeptide
Allows translation to occur again

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42
Q

The lactose Operon

A

Responsible for the regulation of lactose

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43
Q

Lac I

A

Codes for a regulator proteins

mRNA then makes an active repressor

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44
Q

Lac Repressor

A

Binds to operator and blocks the production of beta-galactosidase
When lactose is present in the cell it binds to the repressor changing its form, allowing the production of beta-galactosidase

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45
Q

Inducer

A

The inducer changes the shape of the repressor when it is present in the cell by binding to the repressor
In the lactose Operon, the inducer would be lactose
In the tryptophan Operon, the inducer is tryptophan

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46
Q

Tryptophan Operon

A

trpR codes for mRNA that makes an inactive repressor
When tryptophan is present in the cell it bind to the inactive repressor and activates it
The active repressor then blocks the operator stopping production

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47
Q

Ultraviolet radiation

A

Mainly from sunlight
Ultraviolet rays induce thymine dimers resulting in a kink in the DNA strand
Enzymes often repair the DNA which prevents skin cancer

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48
Q

Chemical mutagens

A
  • Chemicals that can be incorporated into DNA because they looks similar to nucleotides but promote an incorrect base pair
  • Chemicals may also add or remove a group from a nucleotide
49
Q

Spontaneous Mutations

A

Mispairing of base during DNA replication

Nucleotides on rare occasions undergo conformational changes from one another

50
Q

Types of Point mutations

A

Silent
Missense
Nonsense

51
Q

Silent mutation

A

A mutation that has no effect on amino acid sequence

52
Q

Missense mutation

A

A change in one amino acid

53
Q

Nonsense mutation

A

Mutation that makes the stop codon occur earlier in the DNA strand, resulting in a small amino acid sequence

54
Q

Insertion mutation

A

Inserts an extra nucleotide in the DNA strand

Causes a frame shift changing all amino acids behind the mutation

55
Q

Deletion mutation

A

Deletes a nucleotide from the DNA strand

Cause a frame shift changing the amino acids after the mutation location

56
Q

Insert/deletion of 3 nucleotides

A

Extra amino acid/loss of amino acid

No frame shift

57
Q

Autosomal Chromosome

A

22 pairs of homologous chromosome

Same for male and female

58
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

One pair of chromosomes
Male XY
Female XX

59
Q

Monosomic (Monosomy)

A

Genetic Disorder

Lacking a single copy of a chromosome

60
Q

Non-dysjunction

A

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis

61
Q

Trisomics

A

Carrying an Extra copy of a chromosome (3)

62
Q

Kingdoms

A 
Animalia
Plantae
Fungi
Protista
Monera
63
Q

Domains

A

Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya

64
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Small simple cells
Growth when resources are scarce
Very rapid reproduction when resources are plentiful

65
Q

Bacteria

A

Most diverse domain

Usually have two bounding membranes (plasma membrane and outer membrane)

66
Q

Spirochetes

A

Long,thin, live in low oxygen environments

Bacteria

67
Q

Gram Positive Bacteria

A

No outer membrane

Many are soil bacteria, also many cause disease or infections

68
Q

Autotrophs

A

An organism that manufactures it food from inorganic compounds such as CO2 and Ammonia

69
Q

Proteobacteria

A

Very diverse

Ex: e-coli

70
Q

Archaea

A

Some are extremophiles (live in extreme environments)
Some live at 110 degrees or in very salty environments
Many are methanogens meaning they produce methane as waste
Have no outer membrane
Membrane lipids are chemically different than bacteria and eukaryotes

71
Q

Endosymbiosis

A

When one organism lives in another

72
Q

Protist

A

The first eukaryotic organism
Very abundant in most ecosystems
Major predators of prokaryotes
Parasitic protests cause many diseases

73
Q

Multi factorial

A

Possibly several genes and environmental factors

Ex: Cancer

74
Q

Single Gene Disorders

A

Caused by a mutant gene, which may be present in only one chromosome (dominant) or both (recessive)

75
Q

Transcription: Initiation

A

RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, the DNA strands unwind, RNA polymerase initiates RNA synthesis.

76
Q

Transcription: Elongation

A

RNA polymerase move in 3’ to 5’ direction (synthesizing 5’ to 3’)
DNA strands reform as a double helix

77
Q

Spliceosomes

A

Cut out introns (non coding genetic material) and leave the exons (coding genetic material) and attaches the exons in mRNA processing before translation

78
Q

rRNA

A

Complexed with protein to form ribosomes

79
Q

Translation: Initiation

A

A small ribosomal unit attaches to the mRNA
Small subunit recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence
An initiator tRNA binds to the start codon AUG
The large ribosomal subunit attaches to the small subunit
Requires GTP to power

80
Q

Spontaneous Mutations

A

Nucleotides get paired with the wrong bad pair during

DNA replication

81
Q

Mutagens

A

Interacts with DNA that cause mutations

Can also be caused by ionizing radiation, UV radiation and chemical mutagens

82
Q

Chemical Mutagens

A

Chemicals mutagens look similar to DNA nucleotides but promote incorrect base pairing.

83
Q

Repressible Operon

A

Anabolic pathways (when the cell needs something synthesizes)
When there is inducers present in the cell it causes the protein to bind to the Operon starting production
When there is no more inducers the protein unbinds from the operator stopping production

84
Q

Inducible Operon

A

Used for catabolic pathways (lactose needs to broken down)
The repressor in originally bound to the Operon, once inducer is ypresent in the cell the inducer binds to the repressor and causes it to unblock the Operon

85
Q

Darwin’s theory

A

Evolution occurs primarily because of the action of natural selection, individuals of a species belong to populations.

86
Q

Homology

A

Similar anatomical structures but used for different functions.
Ex: forelimbs of Fox, Humans, whales

87
Q

Convergent evolution

A

The independent evolution of similar features in different lineages

88
Q

Analogous

A

Species share features because of convergent evolution

89
Q

Vestigial Structures

A

Structures with little or no functions, derived from more complex structures. Remnants of features that served a function for previous ancestors
Ex: human appendix

90
Q

Embryological Homologies

A

Organs that share a common form during development, but may have very different functions or structures once developed.
Ex: Pharyngeal pouches

91
Q

Molecular Homologies

A

Homologies at the biochemical level.

Ex: universal genetic code

92
Q

Transitional Forms

A

Groups with major adaptions associated with an unusual lifestyle
Ex: whales, birds

93
Q

Population

A

Localized group of interbreeding and interacting individuals. Each species is made up of one to many populations.

94
Q

Genetic Variability

A

Sex shuffles the variability
Individuals have unique combinations of alleles
New alleles arise by mutations in an existing allele
Very few increase fitness

95
Q

Gene pool

A

All alleles at all gene loci in all individuals in a population

96
Q

Fixed alleles

A

Whole population is homozygous at locus

97
Q

Polymorphic Loci

A

2 or more alleles in a population, each present at some frequency

98
Q

Microevolution

A

Change in the frequencies of different alleles on the gene pool over generations

99
Q

Allele Frequencies Equation

A

P+q= 1

100
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Principle Assumptions

A 
No net mutations
Random mating
No natural selection
Large population sizes
No migration
101
Q

Causes of Microevolution

A 
Mutation
Non-random mating
Natural selection
Genetic drift
Gene flow
102
Q

Genetic bottlenecks

A

Genetic diversity can be increased by adding individual from other populations
Captive breeding programs manage makings to preserve remaining genetic diversity

103
Q

Founder effect

A

Some previously rare alleles end up being much more common in the new population

104
Q

Polygenic inheritance

A

Phenotype influenced by several genes

105
Q

Directional selection

A

One end of distribution selected against. Classic response to a changing environment

106
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

Extreme phenotypes are selected against

Often due to different, opposing selective forces

107
Q

Disruptive selection

A

Intermediate phenotypes are selected against

108
Q

Intrasexual selection

A

Competition within one sex for mating opportunities

109
Q

Intersexual Selection

A

One sex chooses a mate from the other sex

110
Q

Diploidy

A

Hides recessive alleles from selection when they are rare

Natural selection can sometimes favour allergic variation

111
Q

Balanced polymorphism

A

When two different version of a gene are maintained in a population of organisms because individuals with both genes are better able to survive than those with two copies of either one

112
Q

Heterozygote Advantage

A

Individuals who are heterozygous at a particular locus have greater fitness than do both kinds of homozygous
In most species individuals are heterozygous at many loci

113
Q

Inter-fertility

A

Populations that interbreed to produce fertile offspring

114
Q

Reproductive Isolation

A

Do not normally successfully interbreed in nature with other species

115
Q

Prezygotic Barriers

A

Act before fertilization

116
Q

Eons (Most recent to least)

A

Phanerozoic
Proterozoic
Archaean
Hadean

117
Q

Eras( most recent to least)

A

Cenozoic
Mesozoic
Paleozoic

118
Q

Cenozoic Periods (most recent to least)

A

Quaternary
Neogene
Paleogene

119
Q

Mesozoic periods (most recent to least)

A

Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic

Biology 1010 (4 decks)

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