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Grade 11 Biology > Genetics - Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Genetics - Chapter 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cell theory

A

all living things are composed of one or more cells
cells are the smallest units of living organisms
new cells come only from preexisting cells from cell division

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2
Q

Reasons for cell division

A

for reproduction
for repair
for growth

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3
Q 
Heredity
Genetics
DNA
Gene
Locus
A

heredity = the passing of traits from parents to offspring
genetics = the branch of biology dealing with heredity and variation of inherited characteristics
DNA = storage molecule for genetic information
gene = segment of DNA molecule that codes for a particular trait (through proteins), at specific loci on chromosomes
locus (pl. loci) = specific location of a gene on a chromosome

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4
Q

Genetic material

A

chromosomes = contain the genetic blueprint of an organism, located in nucleus, supercoiled strands of DNA
most chromosomes occur in sets = diploid, haploid, polyploid
mitochondria and chloroplasts also contain small amounts of genetic material

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5
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

production of offspring from a single parent
genetic makeup of offspring is identical to parent
almost always occurs through cell division

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6
Q

Modes of asexual reproduction

A

putting out roots and shoots
budding = new individuals develop from outgrowth on body of organism
birth = females give birth to genetically identical offspring
fragmentation = parts of growing mass breaks off, continues to grow independently

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7
Q

Advantages to asexual reproduction

A

do not need mate
no need to perform specialized mating behaviours
do not need specialized anatomy

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8
Q

Disadvantages to asexual reproduction

A

may not be able to adapt to dynamic environment

new competitors or diseases can wipe out whole population

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9
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

offspring is produced from 2 sex cells, usually from 2 different parent organisms
offspring is genetically variable, half genetic info from each parent

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10
Q

Advantages to sexual reproduction

A

variable offspring with genetic diversity

some can adapt to environment/disease while others may not

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11
Q

Disadvantages to sexual reproduction

A

must have specialized organs to produce sex cells
specialized mating behaviour can put animal at risk to predators
more energy required to attract mate
offspring can possible inherit unfavourable combination of traits

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12
Q

Mitosis

A

process where cells reproduce themselves
produces 2 identical daughter cells
ensures genetic continuity within an organism for growth, repair, and development

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13
Q

Interphase

A

G1 = 1st gap/growth, doing it’s ‘everyday job’, cell grows, signals cell to divide
S = DNA synthesis, copies chromosomes, results in a pair of sister chromatids
G2 = 2nd gap/growth, prepares for division, cell grows, produces organelles, proteins, and membranes
nucleus is well defined, DNA loosely packed in chromatin fibers

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14
Q

Copying and packaging DNA

A

base pairing allows each strand to serve as a template for a new strand
new strand is half parent template and half new DNA (semiconservative copy process)

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15
Q

Prophase

A

chromatin condenses, visible chromosomes in the form of sister chromatids
centrioles move to opposite poles of cell
protein fibers cross cell to form spindle fibres (coordinates movement of chromosomes)
nucleolus disappears
nuclear membrane breaks down

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16
Q

Metaphase

A

spindle fibers begin moving and align chromosomes

chromosomes align along equator of cell

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17
Q

Anaphase

A

centromeres divide, sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell
results in the same number and type of chromosomes at each pole of the cell

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18
Q

Telophase

A

chromosomes at each end of the cell begin to unwind
spindle fibres dissolve
nuclear membrane start to form around chromosomes (results in two daughter nuclei)
cleavage furrow may start to form

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19
Q

Cytokinesis

A

cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and organelles will be divided equally to form two new cells
animals = constriction belt of microfilaments around equator of cell, cleavage furrow forms splitting cell in two
plants = cell plate forms, new cell wall laid down between membranes, new cell wall fuses with existing cell wall

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20
Q

Cloning

A 
cloning = process of producing one individual that is genetically identical to another using a single cell or tissue
biotechnology = use and modification of organisms for application in engineering, industry and medicine
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21
Q

Cloning plants

A

first cloned plant from a single specialized root cell of a carrot
cells return to undifferentiated state and restart process of growth to develop into new plants

22
Q

Cloning animals

A

challenge = animal body cells could not be stimulated into restarting process of growth and differentiation that begins with a fertilized egg
technique developed requires 2 cells and 3 adults

23
Q

Cloning Dolly the sheep

A

remove cells from original sheep’s body tissue
remove nucleus from an egg cell of another sheep
fuse donor cell into egg cell
implant new embryo into a surrogate mother
surrogate mother gives birth to clone of original

24
Q

Advantages of animal cloning

A

preserve endangered species
produce extinct species
offspring will have preferable characteristics

25
Q

Disadvantages of animal cloning

A

offspring do not live as long due to health complications
expensive
disease could wipe out whole population
ethical and health concerns

26
Q

GMOs

A

genetically modified organisms
carry genes that originated in a different species
commercial insulin is genetically engineered
cost and technological challenges are very high
some moral, ethical, health concerns with GMOs

27
Q

Meiosis

A

single replication of nuclear material followed by 2 cell divisions
creates 4 non-identical gametes with haploid number of chromosomes
special type of cell division that occurs in the gonads
purpose = create reproductive cells (gametes)

28
Q

Prophase I

A

nuclear membrane dissolves
chromosomes are attached to their copy by a centromere
centrioles appear and move to the poles
all of the chromosomes of the same chromosome number (homologous) join together to form a tetrad (bundle of four chromosomes, 2 from each parent)
during the tetrad formation, non-sister chromatids can exchange genes to create unique allele combinations that are not seen in the parent, called synapsis/crossing over

29
Q

Metaphase I

A

the tetrads align themselves at the equator
all tetrads align independently of one another, called independent assortment
once aligned, the tetrads are held in place by spindle fibers released from the centrioles at the poles
the spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the sister chromatids

30
Q

Anaphase I

A

the spindle fibers contract and pull apart each tetrad such that one pair of sister chromatids goes to each pole
centromere does not split, it still holds the sister chromatids together

31
Q

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

A

a nuclear membrane reforms around each new nucleus and the cytoplasm is divided by cytokinesis creating 2 non-identical cells
these two cells immediately proceed into next stage, no interphase
in some cell types, telophase I does not occur

32
Q

Prophase II

A

the chromosomes become more visible and are still attached by centromere
centrioles move towards poles of the cell
nuclear membranes dissolve

33
Q

Metaphase II

A

sister chromatids line up at the equator of the cell

spindle fibers emerge from centrioles and attach to the centromeres of each chromosome pair

34
Q

Anaphase II

A

spindle fibers constrict, breaking centromeres, and pull apart sister chromatids
one copy of the chromosome pair goes to one pole while the other copy goes to the other pole

35
Q

Telophase II

A

nuclear membrane starts to reform around chromosomes

cell membrane starts to pinch inwards at the equator, signaling the end of meiosis and beginning of cytokinesis

36
Q

Genetic variability

A

very large number of possible chromosome combinations in meiosis
number of possible combinations = 2n
n is the number of chromosome pairs
processes that lead to genetic variability = synapsis, independent assortment

37
Q

Gametogenesis

A

the production of gametes through the process of meiosis

38
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

meiosis in males, occurs in the testes
starts with a diploid cell called a spermatogonia
occurs all of the time from puberty until death

39
Q

Oogenesis

A

meiosis in females, occurs in the ovaries and oviducts
starts with a diploid cell called an oogonia
egg production starts before a female is born, but pauses in Meiosis I
the meiotic process resumes at puberty with ovulation for 1 cell every month
after telophase I and II, only one of the cells receives the majority of the cytoplasm, resulting in one egg cell and three polar bodies
allows the egg cell to have sufficient nutrients to support a zygote

40
Q

Chromosome pairs

A

humans have a total of 23 chromosome pairs
number of chromosomes in daughter cell of mitosis = 2n
number of pairs of homologous chromosomes = n
beginning of prophase I = 2n
beginning of telophase I = n
beginning of telophase II = n
one chromosome pair determines the sex of the offspring
XX = female, XY = male

41
Q

Nondisjunction

A

error during chromosomal division

when a gamete that has experienced nondisjunction fertilizes another gamete, it results in monosomy or trisomy

42
Q

Nondisjunction in Meiosis I

A

homologous pairs travel to the same daughter cell
2 daughter cells have 2 copies
2 daughter cells have 0
nondisjunction in Meiosis I impacts all daughter cells

43
Q

Nondisjunction in Meiosis II

A

error occurs when sister chromatids don’t separate, but travel to the same daughter cell
2 daughter cells have 1 copy (not affected by nondisjunction)
1 daughter cell has 0
1 daughter cell has 2
nondisjunction in Meiosis II impacts half of the daughter cells

44
Q

Karyotype charts

A

pictures of chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs by number, size, shape
banded region = contains potentially hundreds of genes
prepared by staining and photographing chromosomes under a microscope

45
Q

Impacts of nondisjunction

A

leads to abnormalities and often zygote death since the resulting embryo will have too little or too much genetic information
examples = Down’s (trisomy 21), Klinefelter’s (XXY), Turner’s (X0)

46
Q

Cytoplasmic DNA

A

the genes in mitochondria contain information related to cellular respiration
the genes in chloroplasts contain information related to photosynthesis
both organelles were thought to have been ancient prokaryotic organisms that were then engulfed by a eukaryotic cell (endosymbiosis)

47
Q

Types of cytoplasmic inheritance

A

maternal inheritance = a zygote inherits cytoplasmic DNA from only the female gamete
paternal inheritance = a zygote inherits cytoplasmic DNA from only the male gamete

48
Q

Genetic variation within organelles

A

genetic variation occurs within organelles as the different types of organelles are randomly separated during cell division
example = variegated leaves

49
Q

Mitochondrial disease

A

a genetic disorder related to energy
process of DNA egg swapping =
if mother is at risk for passing on a mitochondrial disease, remove nucleus of fertilized egg, transfer nucleus to an unfertilized and enucleated egg from donor
resulting cell is transplanted back into mother

50
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

horizontal gene transfer = the transfer of genetic information from one species to another, allows one organism to exhibit the characteristics of an entirely different organism
example = green sea slug
green sea slug feeds on algae, but instead of digesting it completely, it keeps the chloroplasts intact, then incorporates into DNA

Grade 11 Biology (13 decks)

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