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Biology 11 > Genetics > Flashcards

Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

Differentiation

A

development of a cell

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2
Q

Genetics

A

based on Fact #5 of Darwainian Scenaria, much variation is heritable

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3
Q

Mitosis

A
  • cell division to produce more cells, growth of bodies and repair
  • 46 structures in each adult cell
  • all offspring come from one cell called zygote
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4
Q

Zygote

A

First cell produced by fertilization

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5
Q

Fertilization

A

Biological process when the sperm and eggs cell are fused together

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6
Q

Chromosomes

A
  • large bodies composed of one long strand of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones and are super coiled
  • only seen when the cell is actively dividing
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7
Q

Chromatin

A
  • partially coiled DNA (with histones), normal state of DNA when not dividing
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8
Q

DNA

A
  • deoxyribonucleic acid
  • large polymore (special molecule) that carries info about species and individual traits
  • 2 m long, exists partially folded in nucleus
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9
Q

Genes

A
  • length of DNA that code protein structures
  • proteins give us characteristics
  • normally 2 letters
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10
Q

Allele

A
  • Alternative form of a gene
  • normally 1 letter
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11
Q

Asexual Reproduction

A
  • one parent needed
  • produces genetically identical daughter cells
  • cell division by mitosis, identical to parent
  • if environment changes they show less variation
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12
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A
  • uses meiosis
  • two parents needed, each have 46 chromosomes
  • producing sex cells that are not identical to parents
  • egg and sperm
  • MAJOR SOURCE OF VARIATION FOR EVOLUTION
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13
Q

Haploid

A
  • One copy of each gene (has 23 chromosomes)
  • produced at the end of Meiosis 1
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14
Q

Diploid

A
  • a cell that has all 46 chromosomes, adult cells are diploids
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15
Q

Gametes

A
  • sex cells produced
  • a mature haploid male or female cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
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16
Q

Meiosis

A
  • the combination of genes you have from parents determines how it related to a sibling you are
  • cell division used to produce sex cells
  • sexual recombination is the source of variation in offspring
  • explains why genetic inheritance behaves the way that it does
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17
Q

Interphase (before Meiosis)

A
  • cell prepares for division, building up energy, chromatid doubles
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18
Q

Prophase 1

A
  • chromosomes become visible because DNA goes from a chromatin state to being all coiled up in a chromosome state
  • to pull these chromosomes apart we need to lose the nuclear membrane (that structure is in the way) so it starts to breakdown
  • chromosomes line up to the middle in homologous pairs
  • crossing over (a unique characteristic that only happens in meiosis) chromosomes will come so close to each other that’s they will overlap and enzymes will split the parts of the chromosomes and swap parts of the DNA (this offers more gentic variation)
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19
Q

Synapsis

A

Homologous chromosomes pair up, grouping of four chromatids that have similar genes

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20
Q

Tetrad

A

Pair of chromosomes (aka bivalent) cross over between chromatids at locations called chiasma

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21
Q

Methaphase 1

A
  • moved to the center, spindle fibers attached to chromosomes
  • microtubules attached and pull them apart
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22
Q

Anaphase 1

A
  • homologous chromosomes are being pulled apart by breakdown of microtubules and pulled to either side of the cell
  • sister chromatids remain attached
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23
Q

Telophase 1

A
  • chromosomes lie at pole
  • cells divide into two cells making haploids
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24
Q

Meiosis II

A

Same as mitosis but in two cells at the same time

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25
Q

Prophase II

A
  • chromosomes are duplicated
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26
Q

Metaphase II

A

Chromosomes line up in middle

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27
Q

Anaphase II

A

Chromatids now splits to opposite cell poles

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28
Q

Telophase II

A

New nuclei formed and there are now 4 daughter cells

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29
Q

Homlogous Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes, one from each parent

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30
Q

Spindle

A

Fibers that are composed microtubules to pull chromosomes to opposite poles

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31
Q

Principles Idea

A

Mendel revolutionized understanding of how organisms and inherit traits from generations. After his experiment he proposed laws but are now known as principles because they are generally true but not universal.

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32
Q

Principle of Segregation

A

In adults, genes exist in pairs which separate pairs of alleles when gametes are formed and recombine into pairs at fertilization.

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33
Q

Principle of Dominance

A

If an individual is heterozygous (has 2 different versions of same gene) you one version will be dominant and the other will recede (be hidden). The recessive version of the gene will only appear when an individual inherits two copies of recessive/ becomes homozygous recessive.

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34
Q

Genotype

A

The number of combinations of genes

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35
Q

Phenotype

A

trait/physical appearance

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36
Q

Hybrid

A

used when referring to a population with a gene of 2 different alleles

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37
Q

Pure Breed

A

used when referring to a population with a gene of 2 of the same alleles

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38
Q

Homozygous

A

2 of the same alleles (dominant or recessive)

39
Q

Heterozygous

A

2 different alleles

40
Q

Monohybrid Cross

A

crossing for 1 gene between 2 heterozygous

41
Q

Principle of Independent Assortment

A
  • each pair of alleles separates independently
  • all possible combinations of factors can occur in the gametes in roughly equal proportions
  • Genes are found on separate chromosomes or very far apart on the chromosomes
42
Q

Dihybrid Cross

A
  • testing different genes being produced together
  • the alleles travel independently so that there are more possible combinations in the gametes
43
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

When the two traits from pure strains appeared to blend in the hybrids, they referred to the phenomenon as “incomplete dominance”. We use lower case letters with superscripts for incompletely dominant alleles.

Three phenotypes (one per genotype) and the third one looks like a blend.

ex: red and white flower produced pink

44
Q

Co-Dominance

A

When the two traits from parents appeared to be expressed side by side in the same individual, they referred to the phenomenon as “co-dominance”. Co-dominant alleles are given capital letters with superscripts.

Three phenotypes (one per genotype) and the third one is a combination of the other two

45
Q

Purebreed Cross

A

1 gene cross between 2 nomozygous

46
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

The cell has two sets of each chromosome; one of the pair is derived from the mother and the other from the father. The maternal and paternal chromosomes in a homologous pair have the same genes at the same loci, but possibly different alleles.

47
Q

Spindle

A

Protein structure that divides the genetic material in a cell, made up of microtubles

48
Q

Test Cross

A

To assess the genotype of an individual with a dominant trait, we can perform a Test Cross, in which we cross such an individual with a
known double recessive.

49
Q

Carrier

A

a heterozygous person possessing a recessive gene for a trait, and not expressing the trait

50
Q

Loci

A

position of a gene on a chromosome

51
Q

Multi-alleic genes

A

A pair of genes with more than 2 alleles

52
Q

Epistatic Genes

A

When a trait is determined by more than 1 pair of genes

53
Q

Autosomal

A

chromosomes 1-22 (don’t determine the gender)

54
Q

Population

A

Group of individuals from the same species in a given area

55
Q

Gene pool

A

total number of alleles at all gene loci in the population, all alleles present in population

56
Q

Allelic frequency

A

proportion or percentage of a certain allele of a specific gene in the population

  • frequency of dominant allele (A)
  • frequency of recessive allele (a)
57
Q

Genotypic frequency

A

frequency of a specific genotype in a population

  • frequency homozygous dominant (AA)
  • frequency homozygous recessive (aa)
  • frequency heterozygous (Aa)
58
Q

Microevolution

A

change of allelic frequency in a population in a short period of time

59
Q

Speciation and macroevolution

A

Evolution over a long period of time. Microevolution over time may lead to formation of new species (speciation) from a common ancestor.

60
Q

p

A

frequency of dominant allele in the gene pool

61
Q

q

A

frequency of the recessive allele

62
Q

genotypic structure of the population

A

 p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

63
Q

Frequency

A

how often something occurs

64
Q

Phenotypic frequency

A
  • frequency of dominant phenotype
  • frequency of recessive phenotype
65
Q

Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium

A

As long as certain conditions are met, allele frequencies will remain constant and population will not evolve. This is important as it serves as a control. We can find out how strongly different factors affect rate of evolution.

66
Q

HW Conditions

A
  1. Very large popultaion- sampling errors could change population if it were small
  2. No immigration or emmigration- alleles can not enter or leave
  3. No mutations- alleles do not change spontaneously
  4. No Natural Selection- no allele is favoured relative to any other allele
  5. Random mating- individuals have equal chances of mating with eachother, so alleles get fully mixed
67
Q

p2

A

frequency of homozygous dominant indivuals

68
Q

2pq

A

frequency of heterozygous individuals

69
Q

q2

A

frequency of homozygous recessive individuals

70
Q

Bottleneck Effect

A

population contracts to a significantly smaller size over a short period of time due to some
random environmental event

71
Q

Violation #1

A

Small Populations

Genetic Drift (2nd most powerful)

  • random chance events that results from smapling errors in small populations
  • random events have large impact on small pop. vice versa
  • results a change in evolution but is Non-Adaptive (doesn’t help or benefit in their environment)
72
Q

Founder Effect

A

special case of a population bottleneck, occurring when a small group in a population splinters off from the
original population and forms a new one

73
Q

Violation #2

A

Mutations

  • to cause changes in the gene pool by creating new alleles
  • changes allele frequency but not rapid enough to cause change in population
  • NON ADAPTIVE
74
Q

Violation #3

A

Immigration/Emmigration

Gene Flow (result of immigration)

  • movement or changes of allele frequencies based on the fact that members can leave/enter
  • tend to make pop more homogenous
  • can change allele structre, can cause evolution
  • NON ADAPTIVE
75
Q

Violation #4

A

Random Mating

Non random mating (not same as unequal mating)

  • does not change allelic frequencies, changes distributio of those alleles in genotypes

Assortive Mating- like choses like, higher homozygosity

Dissortive Mating- opposites attract, increased heterozygosity

76
Q

A

Directional Selection

  • fitness is lower at arrow, Darwinian NS


77
Q
A

Stabilizing Selection
- both extremes are being selected against

  • heterozygous advantage, prevents change
78
Q
A

Diruptive Selection

  • sides have highest fitness
  • can cause speciation if both ends become so different
  • favours most extreme phenotype
79
Q

Sexual selection

A
  • ties into NS and non-random mating
  • drives evolution of most extreme characteristics in population
  • competition between 1 gender competeing for other gender
80
Q

Handicap Principal

A
  • sexual selection
  • males are using elaborate displays to demonstrate the high quality genes they have, drive by testosterone
81
Q

Sexy son hypothesis

A
  • sexual selection
  • males could false advertise genes, as long as females are willing to mate, characteristics will stay in population
82
Q

Speciation

A
  • process of formation of species
  • process by which an existing population gives rise to a new population that no longer has the potential to recombine with it as a single gene pool
83
Q

Biological Species Concepet

A
  • Ernst Mayer

one or more populations of individuals that can interbreed under natural conditions and produce fertile offspring that are reproductively isolated from other such populations.

84
Q

Reproductive Isolation

A

prezygotic, postzygotic

diff species, same area, can not breed together

85
Q

Postzygotic Isolation

A

hybrids formed, reduced fitness

86
Q

Prezygotic

A

prevents formation of hybrid in first place

87
Q

Gametic Isolation

A

The sperm and egg cannot unite to form a zygote

-protein or signal incompatibilities

88
Q

Mechanical isolation

A

some sort of physical barrer through the delivery of sperm to egg, physically can’t mate

89
Q

Temporal Isolation

A
  • Human fertility is year long
  • certain times of year species will breed, some don’t mate at same time
90
Q

Behavioural Isolation

A

certain traits or characterisice that they do to advertise themselves to opposite gender of species, not all signals are recognized by all populations

91
Q

Habitat (ecological) Isolation

A

of something live in water and something lives on land, they will not get oppurtunities to mate

92
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

Speciation requires reproductive isolation.

The standard model of speciation is the allopatric model
(allo = other, patria = land) in which geographic separation is prerequisite to evolutionary change.

Sympatric (sym = same) speciation, when new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region.

93
Q

Allopatric Model

A

The standard model of speciation assumes that a gene pool must be physically split before the two sub-populations can diverge enough to speciate.

94
Q
A

Biology 11 (4 decks)

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