Exam Flashcards
What is Plasma Made of
Water makes up 90% of plasma. The function of it is that you need volume when the heart is pumping so we can generate pressure. It’s a very good solvent and polar so it can transport a lot.
Plasma proteins make up 7%. These molecules have a lot of functions. Albumin helps maintain blood volume by maintaining a concentration by creating osmotic gradients to suck water back in. Antibodies produced by WBC and fight infections. Fibrinogen helps clotting. PP are found in plasma so it has access to whole body.
Majority of things transported is found in plasma. The function of salts is to maintain BP and muscle contraction. It also makes sure that not too much osmosis happens. Gases for cellular respiration. Nutrients as energy sources. Nitrogen wastes through kidneys.
How oxygen is transported and delivered
- Low pressure acts as a vacuum
- Move into nasal cavity
- Over turbinate bones
- Down pharynx
- Past the epiglottis through the glottis
- Over the vocal cords in the larynx
- Into the trachea
- Branch to left or right broncos
- Further branching into bronchioles
- Down into an alveolus
- Dissolve in moisture
- Diffuse into blood plasma
- Through red blood cell membrane attached to iron in haemoglobin
Hemoglobin gives-up its oxygen as red blood cells travel through capillaries in tissues where there is a low content or partial pressure of oxygen. The partial pressure of oxygen represents the level of dissolved oxygen in plasma.
Red Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: Transport O2 and help transport CO2
Since they are small they are more efficient of diffusing oxygen in, SA/V
Bends and twists to get through capillary, flexible
Has a protein called hemoglobin that is very strong to bind O2.
Eosinophils
Phagocytize parasitic worms, proteins (antigen-antibody complex) and allergens, pick up red stain
Sometimes the proteins they respond to are not harmful, allergens (allergies).
Co-Dominance
When the two traits from parents appeared to be expressed side by side in the same individual, they referred to the phenomenon as “co-dominance”. Co-dominant alleles are given capital letters with superscripts.
Three phenotypes (one per genotype) and the third one is a combination of the other two
Allopatric Speciation
Why digestive system is necessary for animals
Nutrition is a life process and all cells need it from their environment for energy and for growth and repair.
Xylem transport
The xylem transport is a passive transport that transfers water and minerals from the root xylem to the leaves of the plant. Physical forces such as cohesion/adhesion and tension support this transport. When there is loss of water in the leaves (called transpiration), there is tension in the water column from the roots to the leaves. Once the water and minerals enters the root xylem, it creates a positive pressure (root pressure) that pushes the sap column upwards to the area of negative pressure. Adhesion aides this as it is the tendency of water molecules to stick to other hydrophilic molecules like cellulose, this helps keeps the water column intact during transport.
Adaptive Radiation
when many species (instead of two) are formed from one ancestor: response to different selective pressures
HW Conditions
- Very large popultaion- sampling errors could change population if it were small
- No immigration or emmigration- alleles can not enter or leave
- No mutations- alleles do not change spontaneously
- No Natural Selection- no allele is favoured relative to any other allele
- Random mating- individuals have equal chances of mating with eachother, so alleles get fully mixed
Cells that migrate outside the blood and ingest foreign cells are called _______ and ______.
Cells that migrate outside the blood and ingest foreign cells are called ____monocytes___ and ___macrophages___.
Violation #4 of HW
Random Mating
Non random mating (not same as unequal mating)
- does not change allelic frequencies, changes distributio of those alleles in genotypes
Assortive Mating- like choses like, higher homozygosity
Dissortive Mating- opposites attract, increased heterozygosity
Violation #2 of HW
Mutations
- to cause changes in the gene pool by creating new alleles
- changes allele frequency but not rapid enough to cause change in population
- NON ADAPTIVE
Evidence for Evolution
- Fossil evidence- relative age, absolute age
- Anatomical
- Embryology (related organisms have similar development patterns because of common ancestor, all vertebrate embryos inherit the same basic genetic plan for development)
- Anatomical Homology (characteristics or anatomy from ancestor by more than one descendant, homologous structure/traits)
- Vestigial structure (inherited from common ancestor but useless, function lost overtime)
- Convergence/ Analogous Structure (describe the acquisition of the same biological trade and unrelated lineages, looks like because of similar environmental requirements, similar functions at a different anatomy)
- Biochemistry and Molecular Structure
Genetic sequence, immune response and proteins structure all show increasing differences of common ancestors become more remote
- Biogeography- continental drift, adaptive radiation
- Comparative behaviour
Multi-alleic genes
A pair of genes with more than 2 alleles
Platelet
Used to be in a megakaryocyte, each thrombocyte is filled with a protein called thromboplastin/ prothrombin activator as it activates clotting mechanisms
Clot blood to prevent blood from leaking out of your body
Darwinian Scenario
WBC’s that produce antibodies to fight disease organisms are called ____________.
WBC’s that produce antibodies to fight disease organisms are called _______lymphocytes_____.
Monocyte (macrophage)
Put a small protein on the surface of the cell that a particular bacteria is in the body, helper of a lymphocyte
Ventilation of the mammalian lung
Ventilation is the movement of air. Physical forces such as adhesion and cohesion support this transport. When the diaphragm contracts it moves down and flattens out and at the same time external intercostal muscles contract, which rotates the rib cage outward. These two motions increase the volume of the chest cavity. The cohesive attraction of water molecules makes moist, hydrophilic surfaces that adhere strongly to each other. The moist pleura of the lungs then adheres to the moist pleura that lines the chest cavity, causing the lungs to increase in volume as the cavity does.
p+q=1
frequency of dominant or recessive allele
General path taken by blood
Oxygen-poor blood: superior vena cava > right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary artery
Oxygen-rich blood: pulmonary veins > left atrium > left ventricle > aorta
Neutrophils
Most abundant, Fight infections, are a neutral colour when stain, phagocytize (eat) pathogens
Neutrophil will change shape of cell to get pathogen into the membrane, cell will then digest it and remove the waste. Dies once it phagocytizes. (Flattens itself, squeezes through capillaries and cells to reach the layer of skin to fight bacteria)
The Heart
The heart is mostly muscle and the pump part of the circulatory system. It moves blood by contracting. Its longest length is when it’s relaxed and when it contracts it gets shorter. When it contracts the volume inside lowers so that pressure is higher so blood can be pumped around. The function of the heart is to pump blood.
Vascular tissues
transport water, minerals and sugar sap around the plant
Meristematic tissue
undifferentiated cells
- The shoot apical meristem (primary meristems) produces all the adult tissues of the shoot system.
- The root apical meristem (subapical meristem) produces all the adult tissues of the root system.
Violation #1 of HW
Small Populations
Genetic Drift (2nd most powerful)
- random chance events that results from smapling errors in small populations
- random events have large impact on small pop. vice versa
- results a change in evolution but is Non-Adaptive (doesn’t help or benefit in their environment)
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
genotypic structure of the population
Phloem transport
The phloem transport is an active transport that transfers carbohydrates to the rest of the plant. Physical forces such as solute potential, pressure potential, turgor pressure support this transport. Sugars are loaded into phloem cells called sieve tube elements, creating a high concentration of solutes within the sieve tube elements. Water enters the sieve tube elements by osmosis. Osmosis is made by the two physical forces solute potential and pressure potential. The inflow of water increases turgor pressure at the source, causing the movement of water and carbohydrates through the sieve tube elements toward a sugar sink. Turgor pressure is pressure from the fluid within the plant cell that pushes against the plant cell wall.
Autosomal
chromosomes 1-22 (don’t determine the gender)
Events of the heartbeat (ECG)
P- SA node signals (starts in right atrium), depolarization of atria
QRS- AV nodes signal (in septum), depolarization of ventricles
T- repolarization of ventricles
Xylem vs. Ventillation
Similarities
- both use negative pressure
- both use adhesion and cohesion
- exhalation and the cohesion tension model are passive
- both used a concentration gradient to actually get their names substances into the organism. The gradient between high and low water potential is used in xylem transport and then during ventilation the low o2 concentration in the blood stream for oxygen to diffuse into the capillaires
- lungs use positive pressure during inhalation and xylem uses positive pressure because when more water is absorbed it pushes the water Column up
Differences
- xylem in passive and inhalation is active
- for ventilation negative pressure is created by change in volume of container, for xylem transpiration/ change in the content is the cause for negative pressure
- Adhesion/cohesion allows for the chest cavity volume to increase but does not interact with the substance, In xylem adhesion/cohesion interacts and moves the substance
White blood cells
aka Leukocytes: fight infections
Granular- basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils
Agranular- lymphocytes, monocytes
Basophils
Least abundant, Related to allergic reactions, blue
Release chemical substance called histamine. Creates more blood flow and swelling response to infection.
Cells that induce allergic responses are _________ and _____________.
Cells that induce allergic responses are _____eosinophils____ and ______basophils_______.
Granular cells that phagocytize foreign cells in the blood are called_____.
Granular cells that phagocytize foreign cells in the blood are called___neutrophils__.
Gene pool
total number of alleles at all gene loci in the population, all alleles present in population
Production of tissue fluid at a capillary bed
Capillaries are where fluids, gases, and wastes are exchanged blood and body tissues by diffusion. Substances such as white blood cells, water and salts are moved during this transport. Capillaries are made up of endothelial cells that have tiny holes that allow water and small solutes to pass through the blood vessel into the tissue cells. Physical forces such as hydrostatic pressure, osmotic pressure and blood pressure support this transport. At the capillary bed blood pressure is relatively low because blood has been diverted from the arterial to many capillaries. Osmotic concentration is relatively high and solute concentration in the capillaries is relatively high because fluid has been pushed into the tissues at the arterial end due to hydrostatic pressure.
epistatic gene
When a trait is determined by more than 1 pair of genes
Lymphocyte
More will be kept around if a specific pathogen comes, these cells require a lot of energy so that is why we don’t keep them in abundance. We are only immune to pathogens in our environment, we have the ability to detect a certain bacteria or virus.
Produce antibodies.
Violation #3 of HW
Immigration/Emmigration
Gene Flow (result of immigration)
- movement or changes of allele frequencies based on the fact that members can leave/enter
- tend to make pop more homogenous
- can change allele structre, can cause evolution
- NON ADAPTIVE
Incomplete Dominance
When the two traits from pure strains appeared to blend in the hybrids, they referred to the phenomenon as “incomplete dominance”. We use lower case letters with superscripts for incompletely dominant alleles.
Three phenotypes (one per genotype) and the third one looks like a blend.
ex: red and white flower produced pink
How lungs are kept clean
- Entering nostril – large particles filtered by nose hairs
- Nasal cavity – trapped in mucus
- Turbinate bones provide large surface area to trap even more
- Mucus is removed by sneezing, swallowing or blowing notes.
- Trachea and bronchi – ciliated epithelium with goblet cells – mucus traps particles
- Cilia move mucus up toward the throat to be swallowed down
- White blood cells remove tiniest particles
- Can trap them in lymph nodes
- If pathogens enter, lymphocytes may be activated to produce antibodies
Ground tissue
carry out most of the metabolic processes and also provide physical support
Dermal tissue
protect plant and interact with environment
Why digestive system is necessary for animals
Nutrition is a life process and all cells need it from their environment for energy and for growth and repair. Animals are heterotrophs because they eat from other things. We need to digest food to make it smaller to pass through cell membranes. Molecules in the environment are too large for diffusion.
Process of Digestion
- Mouth- saliva (made of water, mucus, and amylase) mixes with food and begins breaking down starch into molecules of maltose, a disaccharide
- Tounge pushes the bolus to the pharynx and pushed down the esophagus in peristalsis
- At the bottom of the esophagus, the bolus pushes on the gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincter, which opens, admitting the bolus into the stomach.
- In the stomach, the food is churned by muscular contractions. During this time, large quantities of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsinogen are pumped into the stomach.
- The small intestine includes the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum receives bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. The walls of the intestine have villi which absorbs the nutrients. Amino acids and glucose enter the blood vessels of villus. The jejunum permits enzyme digestion.
(Pancreas produces juices that contain sodium bicarbonate and enzymes that digest starch; pancreatic amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin and lipase)
(The liver secretions, which have been stored in the gall bladder, produces bile. Bile includes amphiphilic molecules called bile salts. These salts are slightly basic and help neutralize the stomach acid, but their main job is to emulsify the fat droplets)
- The large intestine absorbs water, salts, and vitamins.
- Anus get rid of feces.
Digestive Enzymes
Digestive enzymes help speed up the chemical process.
- Amylase, produced in the mouth. It helps break down large starch molecules into smaller sugar molecules.
- Pepsin, produced in the stomach. Pepsin helps break down proteins into amino acids.
- Trypsin, produced in the pancreas. Trypsin also breaks down proteins.
- Pancreatic lipase, produced in the pancreas. It is used to break apart fats.
- Gastrin, which signals the secretion of gastric acid.
How stomach digest proteins
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides into amino acids. Pepsin needs to be activated by an acid.
How small intestine absorbs more
The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares that project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi, which in turn have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The function of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli is to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients. Each villus transports nutrients to a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface.
Root and Stem Monocot
Primary
- root- vascular cylinder is larger
- vascular vessels scattered distributed
Secondary
- there is no secondary growth
Root and Stem Dicot
Primary
- root- vascular cylinder is smaller
- vascular vessels in a circle
Apical meristem
Location (shoot tip and root tip)
Form and function: Primary growth of stems an roots
Lateral meristems (cork cambium and vascular cambium)
Location (cylinders along stems and roots)
Form and function: Secondary growth of stems and roots
Root apical meristem
produces all the adult tissues of the root system
Lateral buds
adds branches to shoot system
pericycle
adds branches to root system
Phytohormones
- Auxins- cell elongation near apical meristem
- Gibberellin- cell elongation near apical meristem
- Cytokinin- cell division
- Abscisic acid- keeps plant dormant
- Ethylene- ripening of fruit
