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Genetics Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is DNA

A

-deoxyribonucleic acid
-the material that encodes all of the hereditary information in cells
-the eukaryotic cells it is contained in the nucleus (except during cell division)

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2
Q

What is RNA

A

-ribonucleic acid
-like a “photocopy” of a small section of DNA
-carried outside the nucleus to a ribosome and directs it to create specific proteins for the cell

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3
Q

What shape is DNA

A

a double helix consisting of two strands of repeating units called nucleotides

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4
Q

what is a nucleotide

A

a strand of repeating units

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5
Q

What are the parts of a nucleotide

A

each nucleotide consists of 3 parts
-a sugar
-a phosphate
-a base

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6
Q

How many types of nucleotides are there

A

4 types are possible because there are 4 different bases. The sugar and phosphate in each case is the same

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7
Q

what are hydrogen bonds

A

bases that extend towards each other that form weak bonds. Hydrogen bonds are the force that holds the two chains together

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8
Q

what are the complementary pairs

A

-Adenine + Thymine (A+T)
-Cytosine + Guanine (C+G)

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9
Q

what determines the specific information encoded by the gene

A

the number, type and order of the bases in the strand of DNA

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10
Q

What is DNA organized into

A

chromosomes

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11
Q

What are chromosomes

A

-long strands of DNA wrapped around a protein called a histone
-each chromosome contains information for hundreds of traits

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12
Q

what is a histone

A

a protein that a chromosome is wrapped around

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13
Q

what is a gene

A

a segment of a chromosome that codes for one particular trait

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14
Q

how does DNA duplicate

A

-hydrogen bonds break, the double helix “unzips”, exposing the bases
-free nucleotides that are floating in the nucleus then attach according to their complementary bases
-2 new, identical strands are formed from the original strand

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15
Q

Does DNA leave the nucleus

A

DNA is the master copy of genetic instructions, and so it does not leave the protection of the nucleus

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16
Q

What is a copy of DNA called

A

This copy is called RNA. When genetic instructions are needed for a cell to make a protein, a copy is made of the portion that encodes this information

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17
Q

what are the differences in DNA vs RNA

A

-RNA are also composed of nucleotides, but is single stranded and has differences in the nucleotides
-the sugar is called ribose instead of the deoxyribose found in DNA
-RNA is much shorter than DNA
-Thymine is replaced with a different base called uracil, which is still complementary to adenine
-RNA is free to leave the nucleus, while DNA is not

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18
Q

How does RNA work

A

-when DNA is unwound, the exposed bases act as a template to create a short strand of RNA that encodes information for one gene
-Once the RNA strand is complete it detaches from the DNA and the DNA rewinds

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19
Q

Why do some cells look and function differently

A

Each cell of your body contains all of the genetic information (DNA) to make a whole new you. However only certain genes are “turned on” in each cell, which is why skin cells look and function differently than stomach cells

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20
Q

What is mitosis

A

a type of cell division that creates identical cells

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21
Q

Why do cells undergo mitosis

A

-to create new cells for growth of the individual
-to replace dead or damaged tissues

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22
Q

What is a chromatid

A

each identical copy of the chromosome is known as a chromatid, and chromatids are attached by a small disk called a centromere

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23
Q

what is interphase

A

-most of a cell’s lifetime is spent in interphase
-the cell spends its time growing and making new materials
-at the end of interphase, before cell division occurs, the DNA is replicated, and the 2 copies are attached to each other.

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24
Q

what are the steps of mitosis

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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25
Q

what is prophase

A

-chromatin condenses to form visible duplicated chromosomes
-nuclear membrane breaks down and the nucleolus disappears
-spindle fibers are formed from the centrosomes as they move to opposite poles of the cell. They are responsible for moving and organizing the chromosomes during cell division

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26
Q

what is metaphase

A

-spindle fibers move the chromosomes to the equator (center) of the cell by attaching to the centromere of the replicated chromosomes

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27
Q

what is anaphase

A

-the centromere splits apart and the sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles by the shortening of the spindle fibers

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28
Q

what is telophase

A

-chromatids have reached the two opposite poles of the cells. Each of them is a single, non-replicated chromosome
-chromosomes begin to unwind and become less visible, and are now referred to as chromatin
-the spindle fibers break down and disappear, and the nuclear membrane reforms around the new set of chromosomes

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29
Q

what is cytokinesis

A

cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm to form 2 separate cells. It is sometimes considered part of telophase

30
Q

how does cytokinesis work

A

an indentation forms along the middle of the cell membrane, and deepens until the cell pinches in 2. If it is a plant cell, a new cell plate forms between them. At the end of cytokinesis there are 2 genetically identical daughter cells

31
Q

Why is the chromosome number often referred to in pairs

A

we inherit 2 copies of every trait, one from each parent

32
Q

what are the sex chromosomes

A

the last pair of chromosomes that determine the sex of the child

33
Q

what is the term for a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

A

an autosome

34
Q

what is a homologous chromosome

A

homologous chromosomes code for the exact same traits. one of the homologous pairs come from one parent, and one comes from the other parent

35
Q

if you were looking at a picture of chromosomes under a microscope, how would you be able to tell if they were homologous

A

they are the same size, have their centromeres in the same location, and would have the same banding patterns when treated with stain

36
Q

what is an allele

A

different forms of a gene

37
Q

what is a karyotype and why might it be important

A

a photograph of all of the chromosomes of a cell. It allows doctors to detect if there are too many/ too few chromosomes in the cell

38
Q

what does parent cell mean

A

the cell at the beginning of mitosis

39
Q

what does daughter cell mean

A

cells at the end of mitosis

40
Q

what is a somatic cell

A

body cells (any cells except for sex cells)

41
Q

What are the stages of the cell cycle

A

interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis

42
Q

what happens in the G1, S, and G2 phases of interphase

A

-G1 “gap 1”: growth
-S “synthesis”: replicates DNA
-G2 “gap 2”: preparing to divide

43
Q

when do chromosomes become visible

A

not visible until prophase begins

44
Q

what are the products of meiosis called

A

haploids

45
Q

what re the two types of errors that can occur during meiosis

A

changes in chromosome structure, and changes in chromosome number

46
Q

what causes errors in meiosis

A

crossing over and random assortment provide variation in the daughter cells of meiosis, but these processes also have the potential to cause chromosomal abnormalities

47
Q

how do changes in chromosome structure happen

A

-during crossing over, the bonds holding the DNA together are broken and re-formed, but sometimes they do not re-form correctly.
-during crossing over, occasionally two chromosomes that are NOT homologous may exchange information

48
Q

what are the four categories of errors that may result from improper chromosome structure

A

-Deletion: a piece of the chromosome is missing
-Duplication: a section of a chromosome is repeated 2 or more times in a row
-Inversion: a section of a chromosome is flipped
-Translocation: a portion of one chromosome becomes attached to a different chromosome

49
Q

how do changes in chromosome number happen

A

when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate properly during meiosis (I or II), this is called non-disjunction. The result is a cell with too many chromosomes, or not enough chromosomes

50
Q

what does non-disjunction mean

A

when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis (I or II)

51
Q

What is a trisomy

A

one extra chromosome

52
Q

what is a monosomy

A

one too few chromosomes

53
Q

what do trisomies and monosomies cause

A

usually result in the miscarriage of the fetus

54
Q

what does genetics mean

A

genetics is the study of how traits are passed down from generation to generation

55
Q

what is linkage

A

linked traits appear on the same pair of chromosomes, and therefore often cross over together

56
Q

what is a genotype

A

letters used to represent the genetic makeup of the individual for a particular trait

57
Q

what is a phenotype

A

describes the physical characteristic that results from the organisms genotype

58
Q

what is a homozygous

A

organisms that have 2 identical alleles for a particular trait

59
Q

what is heterozygous

A

organisms that have 2 different alleles for a particular trait

60
Q

what are zygotes

A

fertilized eggs

61
Q

what are assex-linked traits

A

traits that are found on the X chromosome but not on the Y

62
Q

what are asholandric traits

A

traits found on the Y but not on the X chromosome. They can be passed only from fathers to sons

63
Q

what is incomplete dominance

A

this describes a situation where neither allele completely masks the presence of the other, so “blending” of the alleles can occur

64
Q

what is codominance

A

this describes a situation in which both alleles for a trait are expressed at the same time in a heterozygote (both are dominant)

65
Q

what is selective breeding

A

the process of breeding plants and animals for desirable traits

66
Q

what is artificial insemination

A

the process by which sperm are collected and concentrated before being introduced into the female’s reproductive system

67
Q

what is in vitro fertilization

A

the technique used to fertilize cells outside the female’s body

68
Q

what is cloning

A

a process that produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organisms

69
Q

what is gene cloning

A

the use of DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA

70
Q

what are stem cells

A

an undifferentiated cell that can develop and become specialized into different cell types of the body

71
Q

what are transgenic organisms

A

organisms whose genetic material includes DNA from a different species

Biology (4 decks)

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