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A-level Biology > Genes and health + Voice of the genome > Flashcards

Genes and health + Voice of the genome Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are the 4 main components of blood?

A
  • plasma
  • platelets
  • white blood cells
  • red blood cells
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2
Q

what is an open circulatory system?

A

where blood is pumped by the heart into body cavities, where tissues are surrounded by blood

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3
Q

what is a closed circulatory system?

A

where the blood always stays in the vessels and never directly contacts cells

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4
Q

what is a single circulatory system?

A

where the blood flows through the heart once per cycle

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5
Q

what is a double circulatory system?

A

where the blood flows through the heart twice per cycle

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6
Q

name 3 advantages of a double circulatory system?

A
  • pressure can be maintained
  • cells have a high metabolic rate
  • prevents the mixing of blood, so the o2 content stays high
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7
Q

what is mass transport?

A

the bulk movement of gases or liquids in 1 direction

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8
Q

name 4 things needed for a mass transport system?

A
  • a system of vessels
  • a way of making sure substances movwe in the right direction
  • means of moving materials
  • a transport medium
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9
Q

name 3 benefits of mass transport?

A
  • move substances quicker
  • maintains concentration gradients
  • ensures effective cell activity
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10
Q

what is a pulmonary circuit?

A

blood moving from heart to lungs

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11
Q

what is a systemic circuit?

A

blood moving from the heart to the body

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12
Q

what does the umbilical artery do?

A

takes blood from the feotus to the placenta

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13
Q

what is the order of blood vessels?

A

arteries - arterioles - capilleries - venuoles - veins

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14
Q

what is collagen?

A

connective tissue

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15
Q

where are veins situated and what does this do?

A

near large muscle groups, so when they contract they squeeze the veins, helping maintain pressure

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16
Q

what do valves do?

A

keep blood flowing in the right direction

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17
Q

name 2 reasons that mass transport is better than diffusion?

A
  • faster
  • transports substances over longer distances
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18
Q

name the 5 main functions of blood?

A
  • transports excretary products
  • transports digested food
  • transports hormones
  • maintains body temp
  • buffer to PH changes
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19
Q

how many binding sites does a heamoglobin molecuole have?

A

4

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20
Q

what is special about heamoglobins cytoplasm and why?

A

it has low oxygen levels, to maintain a steep gradient

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21
Q

what does high oxygen affinity mean?

A

binds easily, dissociates slowly

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22
Q

what does low oxygen affinity mean?

A

binds slowly, dissociates easily

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23
Q

what does partial pressure of oxygen mean?

A

oxygen concentration

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24
Q

if a partial pressure graph shifts to the right what does that mean?

A

lower oxygen affinity, so it dissociates easier

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25
Q

if a partial pressure graph shifts to the left what does that mean?

A

higher oxygen affinity, so oxygen loads easier in the lungs

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26
Q

what partial pressure shift should a small/active organism have?

A

right

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27
Q

what is the name fore heamoglobin that has binded to C02?

A

Carbiminiheamoglobin

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28
Q

what percentage of CO2 is carried by plasma?

A

5%

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29
Q

what percentage of CO2 is carried in heamoglobin?

A

10 - 20%

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30
Q

how is most CO2 in the body stored?

A

it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, with the help of the enzyme carbonic anahydrase

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31
Q

what happens to CO2 in the lungs?

A

the reaction is reversed and CO2 diffuses out into the lungs

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32
Q

what does carbonic acid separate into?

A

H+ ions and hydrogencarbonate ions

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33
Q

name 2 reasons for blood clotting?

A
  • prevent blood loss
  • prevent entry of pathogens
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34
Q

what is thrombosis?

A

the process of clotting

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35
Q

what is seratonin?

A

hormone that causes smooth muscle to contract, constricting blood vessels

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36
Q

what is thromboplastin?

A

an enzyme which controls formation of a clot

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37
Q

name the 4 steps of blood clotting?

A

1) thromboplastin catalyses the conversion of prothrombrin into an enzyme called thrombrin using calcium ions
2) thrombrin also converts fibrinogen which converts into fibrin which forms a mesh of fibres
3) more cells and platelets fall into the mesh, building the clot
4) special protiens in the platelets contract, tightening the clot

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38
Q

name the 3 types of valves?

A
  • tricuspid valve
  • bicuspid valve
  • semi-lunar valves
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39
Q

how many semi-lunar valves are there?

A

2

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40
Q

where is the tricuspid valve located?

A

between the right atrium and right ventricle

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41
Q

where is the bicuspid valve located?

A

between left atrium and left ventricle

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42
Q

where are the semi-lunar valves located?

A
  • between the right ventrical and pulmonary artery
  • between the left ventricle and aorta
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43
Q

what do the tendonis cords do?

A

ensure the valves aren’t turned inside out

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44
Q

what supplies blood to the heart muscle?

A

the coronary artery

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45
Q

what does systole mean?

A

hearts contracting

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46
Q

what does diastole mean?

A

heart is relaxed

47
Q

what is a cardiac cycle?

A

1 sequence of filling and pumping blood in the heart

48
Q

what type of muscle is the heart?

A

myogenic

49
Q

what 4 things happen during diastole?

A
  • atria and ventricles relax
  • elastic recoil lowers the pressure
  • the semi-lunar valves close
  • veins draw blood into the atria
50
Q

what happens during atrial systole?

A

the atria contract, forcing blood into the ventricles

51
Q

what happens during ventricular systole?

A

the ventricles contract, pushing blood out the heart

52
Q

what does myogenic mean?

A

it initiates its own contractions

53
Q

name the 2 nodes that control the cardiac cycle?

A
  • sinoatrial node
  • atrioventricular node
54
Q

where is the sinoatrial node?

A

above the right atrium

55
Q

where is the atrioventricular node?

A

near the atrioventricular valve

56
Q

name the 6 steps of a full cardiac cycle?

A

1) SAN sends out a wave of electrical excitation
2) atria contract, blood flows through tricuspid valve
3) after a short delay, the AVN sends out a wave of electrical excitation
4) then the “bundle of his” transfers the signal don to the septum
5) then, the impulses are conducted by purkinje fibres
6) ventricles contract from the base, upwards so blood leaves the heart

57
Q

name 3 things that affect pressure in the heart?

A
  • contractions
  • filling with blood
  • state off valves
57
Q

name 3 things that affect pressure in the heart?

A
  • contractions
  • filling with blood
  • state off valves
58
Q

why do valves open?

A

to allow movement of blood into a certain area

59
Q

why do valves close?

A

to prevent the backflow of blood

60
Q

what is the equation for stroke volume?

A

cardiac output X heart rate

61
Q

how does caffiene work?

A

stimulates production of noradrenaline by inhibiting release of adenosine, this triggers an increase in heart rate , meaning blood is pumped faster and oxygen is delivered to muscle and brain tissue at a higher rate.

62
Q

what is noradrenaline?

A

a neurotransmitter usually released during “fight or flight” situations

63
Q

what is adenosine?

A

a depressant

64
Q

what are daphnia?

A

aquatic crustaceans

65
Q

what is atheroma?

A

fatty deposit in the arterys

66
Q

what is an endothelium?

A

inner cell lining of blood vessels

67
Q

what is athlerosclerosis?

A

a disease affecting blood vessels, causing CVD and strokes.

68
Q

what are the 6 steps of athlerosclerosis?

A

1) endothelium is damaged
2) inflammatory response is caused
3) atheroma builds up
4) plaque forms due to calcium salt and fibrous tissue deposition
5) as a result, the artery stiffens
6) positive feedback occurs, causing more inflamation

69
Q

what is epidimiology?

A

the study of people, patterns, causes and effects of diseases

70
Q

what is the calculation for blood pressure?

A

force / SA of vessel

71
Q

how does salt affect blood pressure?

A

it increases water retention in the blood, increasing blood pressure

72
Q

what does hypertension mean?

A

high blood pressure

73
Q

how do you present blood pressure?

A

systolic pressure / dystolic pressure

74
Q

name 6 treatments for CVD?

A
  • ACE inhibitors
  • calcium channel blockers
  • diuretics
  • statins
  • anticoagulants
  • platelet inhibitors
75
Q

what do ACE inhibitors do?

A

relax veins and arteries to lower blood pressure

76
Q

what do calcium channel blockers do?

A

prevent calcium entering artery walls, weakening contractions

77
Q

what do diuretics do?

A

prevents build up of water in the blood, lowering blood pressure

78
Q

what do statins do?

A

lower LDL cholesterol levels

79
Q

what do statins do?

A

lower LDL cholesterol levels

80
Q

what is the function of the nucleolus?

A

dark spot in the middle of the nucleus, site of ribosome formation

81
Q

what is the function of the nuclear envelope?

A

Transports RNA and protiens in and out of the nucleus

82
Q

what is the function of the amyloplast?

A

energy store

83
Q

what is the function of the plasmodesmata?

A

connects cytoplasm of neighbouring cells, allows substance transport

84
Q

what is the function of the golgi body?

A

modifies protiens and lipids

85
Q

what is the function of the tonoplast?

A

vacule membrane, regulates ion movement

86
Q

what is the function of the middle lamella?

A

cement layer between plant cells

87
Q

what is the function of the smooth ER?

A

makes lipids and steroids

88
Q

what is the function of the rough ER?

A

produce proteins

89
Q

what valves open and close during diastole?

A
  • SL valves are closed
  • AV valves are open
90
Q

what valves open and close during atrial systole?

A
  • AV valves are open
  • SL valves are closed
91
Q

what valves are open during ventricular systole?

A
  • AV valves are closed
  • SL valves are opened
92
Q

what is a transcription factor?

A

protiens that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression

93
Q

where can transcription factors bind?

A

promoter region
enhancer region

94
Q

what does a promoter region do?

A

increase transcription

95
Q

what does an enhancer region do?

A

decreases transcription

96
Q

what is an operon?

A

unit of linked genes that regulate protien synthesis

97
Q

what is a repressor protien?

A

prevents transcription when activated

98
Q

how does a repressor deactivate in ecoli?

A

lactose binds to it to remove it by changing its shape

99
Q

what is a promoter?

A

starting point for transcription

100
Q

what is an operator?

A

binding site of repressor

101
Q

what is epigenetics?

A

genetic control by factors other than DNA sequence

102
Q

what are the 2 main method for epigentics?

A
  • histone modification
  • DNA methylination
103
Q

what is Histone modification?

A

when DNA is tightly wrapped around the histone transcription is much harder, and vise versa

104
Q

what is DNA methlynation?

A

adds a methal group to DNA at a CPG site, preventing transcription

105
Q

what does sexual reproduction in plants involve?

A

transfer of pollen between male and female parts

106
Q

what is the anther?

A

where pollen is produced

107
Q

what is the stigma?

A

part of the female reproductive organ which receives pollen

108
Q

what is the ovary?

A

part where female gametes are located

109
Q

what gender produces pollen?

A

male

110
Q

what happens after pollination occurs? (4 steps)

A
  • pollen grain germinates, and a pollen tube rows down the style to the ovary
  • 2 haploid male nuclei move down tube
  • generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form 2 haploid male nuclei
  • As the pollen tube reaches the ovule, the pollen tube nucleus breaks down and the two haploid male nuclei pass into the ovule so that fertilisation can occur
111
Q

what are the 2 nuclei in the pollen tube called?

A
  • pollen tube nucleus
  • generative nucleus
112
Q

whats a style?

A

tube-like structure in which connects stigma and ovary.

113
Q

how do steroid hormones pass through cell membranes?

A

theyre lipid soluble

A-level Biology (6 decks)

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