General Medicine Flashcards
Causes of hepatitis? (VADAM)
Viral - CMV/EBV/Hepatitis Alcohol Drugs - Paracetamol, Phenytoin, Sulfonamides Autoimmune hepatitis Metabolic
Main electrolytes intracellularly?
Magnesium, Calcium and Potassium
Main electrolytes extracellularly?
Sodium and Chloride
Plasma level to be defined as hyperkalaemia?
> 5.5mmol/L
Causes of Hyperkalaemia?
Impaired kidney excretion
- AKI/CKD
- Drugs (ACEI, Spironolactone)
- Hypoaldosteronism
- Addison’s
Release from cells
- Tumour-lysis syndrome
- Rhabdomyolysis
- Lactic acidosis
- Massive haemolysis
- DIgoxin
- B Blockers
- Insulin deficiency
DREAD
- Drugs (ACEI, Spironolactone)
- Renal failure
- Endocrine (addisons)
- Artefact
- DKA
Hyperkalaemia presentation? (ECG findings)
Palpitations or chest pain.
ECG changes:
- Tall T waves
- Flattened p waves
- Prolonged PR
- Widened QRS
- idioventricular rhythms
- Sine waves
- VF/Asystole
Hyperkalaemia management?
ABCDE
Immediate ECG (any change then treat)
Treatment:
- Protect heart
- Lower serum K+
- Waste body K+
- Prevent future reoccurence
- Clacium Gluconate - 10ml 10% in 10mins
- Lower serum:
- Insulin w/ Dextrose: 10-15units in 50ml@50%.
- Nebulised salbutamol - Waste:
- Furosemide (Dialysis if no GFR)
- Calcium resonium (bad compliance) - Prevent
- Monitor & repeat ECG
- Low K+ diet
- Treat cause
Serum level of potassium in hypokalaemia?
<3.5mmol/L
Calcium Gluconate dose in hyperkalaemia?
10 ml of 10% in 10 min
Presentation of hypokalaemia?
Lethargy and weakness
Muscle cramps
Palpitations
Causes of hypokalaemia?
Poor intake:
- Anorexia Nervosa
- Crohns
Increased gut loss:
- Vomiting (Loss of H+ ions and alkalosis offset by bicarb excretion in the kidneys forces K+ excretion)
- Diarrhoea (loss of bicarb)
Redistribution (into cell)
- Insulin OD
- Salbutamol
- Theophylline
Renal losses
- Furosemide
- Renal tubular acidosis
- Genetic renal pathologies
Endocrine (hyperaldosteronism)
- Primary: Conns syndrome
- Secondary: Kidney, renal, heart
Other:
- Hypomagnesaemia (can’t replace K+ without.)
Management of Hypokalaemia?
- ECG (flat t waves, U waves)
- Mild:
- Oral Sando K for 3 days - Severe:
- IV 20-40mmol KCl in N saline over 6 hrs (no faster than 20mmol/hr)
- Never as a bolus
What electrolyte disturbance is small cell lung cancer associated with?
SIADH (hyponatraemia)
Serum sodium in hyponatraemia?
<133 mmol/L (life threatening <120mmol/L)
Hyponatraemia presentation?
Hallucinations Headache Dizziness N&V If more serious: fits, coma, death
Causes of hyponatraemia?
Have to consider hyponatraemia in relation to fluid status:
Hypovolaemic:
- Dehydration (Excess sweating, burns, fistulas)
- D&V
- Diuretic excess (Addison’s, osmotic diuresis)
Euvolaemic
- SIADH
- Hypothyroidism
Hypervolaemic:
- HF, Kidney Failure, Liver failure
- Nephrotic syndrome
Small cell Lung Ca.
DRugs
- SSRIs, TCAs, Antipsychotics, Antiepileptics, omeprazole
SIADH causes?
Hypoxia
- Respiratory failure
- COPD
- Pneumonia
- Small cell ung ca.
CNS diseases
- Meningitis
- Stroke
- SAH
- Trauma
- Tumour
Hyponatraemia management?
- Assess fluid status
- Do Bloods
- U&Es
- 8am Cortisol
- TFT
- Serum osmolality - Urine tests
- Dip
- Osmolality (w/ serum)
- Sodium (off diuretics, if >40mmol/L then SIADH)
If Hypovolaemic:
- Treat cause
- Rehydrate w/ N saline
If Euvolaemic
- Treat cause
- If SIADH :
1. stop precipitating drug
2. fluid restrict
3. Tolvaptan
4. Furosemide
If hypervolaemic:
- Treat cause
- Fluid restrict
Serum level of sodium in hypernatraemia?
> 145mmol/L
Presentation of hypernatraemia?
Headache, Nausea and Vomiting, Seizures, Confusion.
Causes of hypernatraemia?
Excess loss (fluid):
- Diabetes insipidus**
- Osmotic Diuresis** e.g. DKA, HHS
- Diarrhoea
- Vomiting
- Sweating
Excessive hypertonic fluid
- IV infusion
- TPN
- Enteral feeds
Decreased Thirst*
Management of hypernatraemia?
- If severe consider ITU
- Treat underlying cause
- If mild
- Encourage oral intake of fluid - If hypervolaemic from inappropriate IV fluid then IV 5% dextrose and furosemide.
- N saline if hypovolaemic
Features of Hyperparathyroidism, what’s the usual patient?
Bones, stones, abdominal groans and psychic moans:
- Bone pain/fracture
- Renal stones
- Peptic ulceration/constipation/pancreatitis
- Polydipsia, polyuria
- Hypertension
- Depression
Normally elderly female, with unquenchable thirst and raised or inappropriately normal PTH
Normal (most common) cause of Hyperparathyroidism
Solitary parathyroid adenoma
Investigations in Hyperparathyroidism?
- Calcium - Raised (suppresses PTH)
- Phosphate low
- Pepperpot skull on XR
- Technetium-MIBI subtraction scan
Management of hyperparathyroidism?
Parathyroidectomy
If low level disease could manage conservatively
U&E (and pH) changes associated with cushings syndrome?
Hypokalaemic metabolic alkalosis
What main two types of steroid hormone activity do exogenous corticosteroids have and what are their main activities?
Glucocorticoid
- Anti-inflammatory
Mineralocorticoid
- Fluid retention
A patient presents with lethargy, hyponatraemia and hyperkalaemia, what’s the most likely diagnosis?
Addison’s disease
How do you diagnose addison’s disease?
Short synacthen test (ACTH stimulation). It will show no rise in cortisol if the pt has Addison’s.
Two most common causes of hypercalcaemia?
Malignancy and primary hyperparathyroidism
Common presentation of primary hyperaldosteronism?
Hypernatraemia, Hypokalaemia and hypertension
Addison’s disease management?
Hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone
What are you looking for when ordering an ultrasound in urosepsis/UTI?
Rule out urinary obstruction or renal stone disease
Causes of pulmonary oedema?
Cariogenic
- Left sided HF
Non-cardiogenic
- ARDS
- Lymphatic insufficiency
- Hypoalbinaemia
- HAPE
What is gastroparesis?
Delayed gastric emptying, often caused by autonomic neuropathy in poorly controlled diabetes. Presents with persistent nausea and vomiting, feeling full quickly and loss of appetite.
Pathophysiological changes in AKI?
Abrupt decline in GFR
Often oliguria (<400ml/day)
Raised Urea & Creatinine
If a diabetic pt is going to theatre what blood sugars are you aiming for? What might you do to achieve this?
7-10 could use an insulin sliding scale
What Abx can you use to treat C diff?
Metronidazole or vancomycin
What is a tissued cannula?
When the cannula has been pulled out of a vein (or wasn’t in one in the first place) and fluid is collecting around the cannula site.
What test may you do to differentiate T1DM and T2DM?
C-Peptide
What is Bronchiectasis, what does it present with, what is it caused by?
Bronchiectasis is a permanent dilatation and thickening of the airways presenting with chronic cough, sputum production, recurrent infection, haemoptysis, SOB, chest pain, crackles & wheeze
Bronchiectasis is caused by chronic inflammation of the airways. It can be associated with lots of diseases causing inflammation.
- Post lung infection
- HIV
- Connective tissue disorders such as RA, SLE.
- Asthma
What is pemberton’s sign testing for? What is it?
SVC obstruction - red face when both arms held up
Treatment for SVC obstruction?
O2
Dexamethasone
Invasive - Stenting/radiotherapy
What is lambert eaton syndrome?
A paraneoplastic syndrome seen in lung cancer, consists of proximal muscle weakness, and difficulty contracting muscles initially (but getting better on repeated use)
How would you treat lambert eaton syndrome?
IV immunoglobulins, prednisolone, azothiaprine or pyridostigmine
Confusion bloods?
FBC - (WCC, Neutrophils), anaemia Us&Es - Renal function B12, Folate TFTs LFTs
SIADH treatment?
Fluid restrict <1L Demeclocycline if fluid restricting is not working Hypertonic saline (1-2mmol/Hr) no more as risk of demyelination.
Common Lung Ca. symptoms?
Cough (present in 80%)
Haemoptysis, weight loss, lymphadenopathy
Causes of clubbing?
ABCDE
Abscesses Bronchiectesis Carcinoma Don't say COPD Empyema Fibrosis
Types of lung Ca?
Small cell
- Rapid growing lesion
- Associated with SIADH and cushings
- Bad prognosis
Non-Small cell
- Adenocarcinoma (non-smokers)
- Squamous (raised calcium) - Smokers
- Large (secrete B-HCG)
Types of drugs that affect coagulation?
Anticoagulants (Warfarin, Heparin, rivaroxaban, LMWH)
Fibrinolytics (streptokinase, alteplase)
Antiplatelet drugs (Aspirin, Clopidogrel)
Types of anticoagulants?
Vit K antagonist
- Warfarin
DOACs
- Xa inhibitors (Rivaroxaban, Apixaban)
Thrombin inhibitor:
- Dabigatran
Heparins (antithrombin activator)
- Unfactionated Heparin
- LMWH (dalteparin, enoxoparin)
Features of the heparins?
Heparins:
- Must be given by injection (SC or IV)
- Reversible with protamine
UFH (Heparin)
- V short half life
- Can cause thrombocytopaenia
LMWH e.g. enoxaparin
- Longer half life
- Less rate of thrombocyopenia
Features of Warfarin & the newer Factor inhibitors?
Warfarin
- Can give orally
- Full anticoagulant effect is delayed (4-5days)
- Long half-life
- Needs levels monitoring
Dabigatran (anti-thrombin), and Rivaroxaban (anti-Xa)
- Oral
- Acts rapidly
- Does not require monitoring
- Less reversibility available
In Liver disease what causes the pancytopenia?
Portal hypertension leads to splenomegaly and inhibits spleen function
What three veins contribute to the portal vein?
Superior and inferior mesenteric and splenic.
What is the function of the portal system? What is it’s pathway?
Drains blood from the GI tract, spleen, pancreas and gallbladder to the liver (to metabolise) then this is drained by the hepatic veins into the IVC.
What varices do you get in portal hypertension
Why do you get them in portal HTN?
Lower oesophageal
Anal wall
Caput medusa (on abdominal wall)
They are portal-systemic anastomoses and these engorge with increased pressure.
What are the different types of insulin and examples of them?
Rapid acting insulin analogues (act faster, and have shorter duration), often bolus in regimes:
- Novorapid
- Humalog
Short acting insulins: (can be bolus in regime)
- Actrapid
- Humulin S
Long acting insulins
- Levemir
- Lantus
There are also premix solutions available, e.g. Novomix
Relationship between steroids and insulin control?
Steroids induce hyperglycaemia and therefore insulin may need to be increased.
What is the difference in vertigo and dizziness?
Vertigo
- Experience of movement of self +/- the environment (especially rotation)
Dizziness
- Non-specific, light headed feeling, feeling faint (funny turns)
What are pleural plaques?
Plaques usually in the parietal pleura, caused by asbestos exposure, benign in themselves.
What is thyrotoxicosis?
Hyperthyroisim
What is diabetes insipidus? What are it’s causes?
Condition caused by hyposecretion or insensitivity of ADH:
- Cranial: hyposecretion
- Nephrogenic: resistance
Cranial: inherited or some kind of lesion
Nephrotoxic: acquired through metabolic disorders or congenital.
Acute alcoholic Tx?
Pabrinex, chlordiazepoxide
Paracetamol OD investigations and Tx?
Paracetamol levels
N-acetyl cystine
Pattern of spirometry changes in obstructive and restrictive lung disease?
Obstructive
- FEV1 reduced
- FVC normal
- Ratio reduced
Restrictive
- FEV1 reduced
- FVC reduced
- Ratio Normal
Examples of obstructive and restrictive lung disease?
Obstructive (obstruct airways)
- COPD
- Asthma
- Bronchiectasis
Restrictive (decrease lung vol.)
- Pulmonary fibrosis (scarring, e.g. drug treatment/radiotherapy)
- TB
- ARDS
On an ECG If leads 1 and 3 are positive what does this show?
Normal axis
On an ECG if leads 1 and 3 are facing away from each other what does this mean?
Leaving = L for Left
Left axis deviation
On an ECG if leads 1 and 3 are facing towards each other what does this mean?
Returning = R for Right
Right axis deviation
Asthma exacerbation treatment?
O SHIT M
Oxygen hi-flo 100%
Salbutamol neb (if over 5y/o, 5mg)
Hydrocortisone - IV 200mg
Ipratropium bromide neb 500mg
Magnesium
Types of haematuria and their causes?
Visible (painful/not):
Painful
- Infection/stones/thrombosis/cysts/trauma
Painless
- Cancer/exercise induced
Non Visible
Glomerular (usually w/ protein)
- IgA nephropathy/Glomerularnephritis
- Hereditary Alports/benign/familial
Non-glomerular:
- Infection, BPH, Stones, Polyps, Ca., Cysts, sickle cell, necrosis
Normal fluid output for an adult?
0.5ml/kg/hr for an adult
Why is urinary retention such an emergency?
UTIs - urine hanging about
AKI - reflux of urine into the kidney
Bladder damage - stretch on the bladder itself
Points of anaphylaxis immediate management? (adult)
- Rapid A-E
A- Look for and relieve obstruction, remove any traces of allergen left
B- Look for and treat bronchospasm and signs of respiratory distress
C- Colour, pulse and BP
D- AVPU/GCS
E- Assess skin
- Give HiFlo oxygen
- Lay patient flat
- Give 0.5mg 1:1000 IM adrenaline
- Repeat after 5 mins if no improvement - Establish airway
- IV fluid challenge
- Crystalloid (0.9% NaCl, Hartmans, plasmolyte) - 10 mg IV Chlorphenamine
- 200mg IV/IM hydrocortisone
- If still needing respiratory resus then can use salbutamol, ipratropium, aminophylline or mag sulf
- Continue to monitor:
- BP
- ECG
- Sats & Pulse - Make sure you have removed allergen, recorded on the drug chart replace with alternative, do a tryptase to see if it was a true allergic reaction.
What are the reversible 4 H’s and T’s cause of cardiac arrest?
Hypoxia
Hypovolaemia (shock)
Hyperkalaemia (and other metabolic causes)
Hypothermia
Thrombosis
Tension pneumothorax
Tamponade
Toxins
Immediate treatment for MI? Mnemonic?
MONARCH
Morphine O2 Nitrate - GTN Aspirin Reduced risk - Beta Blockers, ACEI, Statin Clopidogrel Heparin (LMW)
What are the different types of laxative?
Stimulants
- Senna
- Bisacodyl - dolculax
- Docusate (also softener)
- Glycerol
Bulk forming
- Bran
- Ispaghula - fybogel
Osmotic
- Macrogol - movicol/laxido
- Lactulose
Softener
Arachis oil (enema)
Docusate (also stimulant)
Risks of a fall in the elderly?
Long lie
- Rhabdomyolysis - AKI
- Pressure sores
- Malnutrition etc
Bony fracture
- NOF
- Wrist
- Clavicle
- Vertebra
What level of protein:creatinine ratio would indicate nephrotic syndrome
> 300
How would you investigate HHS to confirm or refute your diagnosis?
Plasma Osmolarity - Usually above 300
What is ITP?
Immune thrombocytopenia
Autoimmune disorder causing reduced circulating platelets, due to increased destruction and decreased production. The most common presentation is petechiae or bruising, can cause larger bleeds, in children in normally occurs following a viral infection.
What is hepatorenal syndrome (HRS)?
A complication of end-stage liver disease, occurs in pts with :
- Chronic liver dysfunction
- Cirrhosis
- Ascites
- Acute liver failure
This leads to impaired RENAL function, often precipitated by lowered BP
About 35-40% of pts with end-stage liver failure will develop this.
What is the pathophysiology of hepatorenal syndrome?
What other hepatic failure complications is it associated with?
Associated with GI bleeds, Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis other infection e.g. Pneumonia
Splanchnic vasodilatation leading to system circulatory dysfunction and intrarenal arterial vasoconstriction - renal dysfunction.
Differing symptoms of Crohns and UC? What symptoms are common between the two?
UC:
- Bloody diarrhoea more common
- Abdominal pain in the left lower quadrant
- Tenesmus
Crohns
- Diarrhoea usually non-bloody
- Weight loss more prominent
- Upper gastrointestinal symptoms, mouth ulcers, perianal disease
- Abdominal mass palpable in the right iliac fossa
UC pharmacological management?
Aminosalicylates such as messalizine good for induction and maintenance of remission in UC
Corticosteroids for flare ups
Azathioprine
- when corticosteroids don’t cut it
Infliximab and other biologics to treat flare ups and induce remission
Crohns pharmacological management?
Initially glucocorticosteroid
What is the AFP tumour marker for?
Hepatocellular carcinoma and testicular ca.
What is a PTC procedure (gastro) and why would you perform it
Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiogram
Interventional radiological technique where cotrast is injected into the biliary tree to visualise it and can also be used to stent the biliary tree (Mr Cooms)
What is the proportion of inheritance in Dominant, recessive and X-linked disorders?
Autosomal dominant
- 50% affected
- 50% unaffected
Autosomal Recessive
- 25% affected
- 25% unaffected
- 50% carrier
X-Linked recessive disorders
- Only affect males
- Inherited from mother
- 50% chance males will be affected, 50% chance unaffected
- 50% chance females carrier, 50% unaffected
What is the relationship between gout and furosemide?
Furosemide may increase levels of uric acid to rise, and could lead to gout.
When do you measure troponin?
At presentation and at 10-12 hours after.
What are the types of atrial fibrillation and how long do they last?
Paroxysmal <1 week
Persistent >1 week (self terminates or cardioverted)
Permanent - can’t be terminated
What are the different classifications of diverticular disease?
Diverticulosis - Asymptomatic diverticulae
Diverticular disease - intermittent problems occurring due to diverticulosis - Intermittent abdo pain
Diverticulitis - Inflammation due to lodged stool and possible infection - Constant abdominal pain and fever
What are the Z and T scores in osteoporosis? What do the values mean for diagnosis?
T - In comparison to healthy population
Z - In comparison to age matched population
Osteopenia - T score of less than -1
Osteoporosis is a T score
What area of the body do DEXA scans generally measure?
The hip and spine
Management of osteoporosis?
Lifestyle advice:
- Nutrition
- Exercise
- Smoking
- Alcohol
Adcal if necessary
If postmenopausal and no #
- Bisphosphonates, first line is alendronate. Only recommended in postmenopausal women < 65 w/ confirmed osteoporosis and no fragility fractures.
- Second line includes risedronate and may be considered if >65 and unable to take alendronate - Denosumab reduces osteoclast activity, 6 monthly SC injections
- Strontium ranelate only if all other options fail
If Postmenopausal and ##
- Bisphosphonates - alendronate
- Raloxifen
- Strontium, Denosumab or Teriparatide
Some combination for premenopausal/Men - but should investigate why osteoporotic first
Features of liver failure as opposed to stable chronic liver disease?
Liver failure (acute or decompensated chronic disease) is characterised by:
- Raised PT time (coagulopathy)
- High bilirubin
- Hepatic encephalopathy
Also, may have ascites and jaundice
Chronic cirrhosis is often asymptomatic, and may present with vague lethargy e.t.c. AST/ALT rise, portal hypertension, ascites, hepatomegaly, jaundice e.t.c.
For breath/stool H.Pylori test to be most effective what can’t you have taken, and for how long?
PPI for past 2 weeks and Abx for past 4 weeks
Criteria for diagnosis of malnutrition?
BMI <18.5
BMI <20 and unintended Weight loss of >5% for last 3-6Months
Unintended Weight loss >10% in last 3-6Months
What are the types of bowel ischaemia, and the features of each?
Mesenteric ischaemia
- Small bowel
- Abdo pain
- Embolism
- Sudden onset & severe
- High mortality - needs urgent surgery
Ischaemic colitis
- Large bowel
- Abdo pain
- Multifactorial
- transient, less severe symptoms
- ‘Thumbprinting’
- Conservative management
What is achalasia?
Lower oesophageal sphincter dysfunction (stays contracted) shown on barium swallow with dilated upper oesophagus and very small lower oesophagus
How does achalasia present?
Difficulty swallowing solids and liquids equally
Some heartburn
Some regurgitation of food
How does haemochromatosis classically present?
Fatigue, erectile dysfunction and arthralgia Bronze skin Diabetes Liver pathology e.g. hepatomegaly Hypogonaodism Arthritis
What does Gamma GT bloods test for?
Raised GGT in chronic alcohol use, bile duct scarring and non-alcoholic liver disease.
How does autoimmune hepatitis present (inc. bloods)
Young females
- Raised antinuclear/anti smooth-muscle antibodies
Children
- LKM1 raised
Middle aged adults
- Soluble liver-kidney antigen
Generally:
- May present with signs of chronic liver disease
- Acute hepatitis: fever, jaundice etc (only 25% present in this way)
- Amenorrhoea (common)
- ANA/SMA/LKM1 antibodies, raised IgG levels
- liver biopsy: inflammation extending beyond limiting plate ‘piecemeal necrosis’, bridging necrosis
- ALT/AST rise