General Anatomy of Human Flashcards
What are the cells main parts?
The cell has three main parts: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
What are the cells additional parts sans main parts?
organelles or cellular functions
Organelles carry out metabolic life functions necessary to maintain the cell
-their compared to the organs that sustain the functioning of our bodies
The Plasma Membrane
is made of phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
proteins are specific for individual molecules and act as gatekeepers that allow only certain molecules in and out, making the membrane selectively permeable
Cytoplasm
is the semi-fluid substance inside of the membrane that contains organelles
Nucleus
Is the most prominent organelle in the cell and is spherical in appearance
Protected by a double membrane and contains genetic material in the form of nucleic acid DNA
This DNA encodes for all the proteins necessary for the cell and the organism carries out its life functions
when new cells are needed for growth or repairs of tissues, the DNA is replicated in its entirety and the cell enters into the process of cell division or mitosis
Endoplasmic reticulum
is continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus and is composed of parallel flattened sacs covered with ribosomes
smooth ER has no ribosomes and functions as the site of lipid production and storage
Ribosomes
are the site of the synthesis of the protein that is encoded by the DNA in the nucleus
Process of proteins transfer
Once proteins are made on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, they are packaged in parts of the membrane into vesicles and transported to the Golgi complex. The protein vesicles fuse with the Golgi, where they are modified and packaged and transported to where they are needed.
So the golgi is referred to as the manufacturing and shipping department of the cell
Golgi Complex
Is referred to as the manufacturing and shipping department of the cell.
Also responsible for packaging digestive enzymes within vesicles known as lysosomes and are necessary for cellular metabolism
Mitochondria
For a cell to complete cellular processes, it must create usable cellular energy from the energy stored in the chemical bonds of the foods humans eat
Mitochondria is the power house of the cell, changes food energy into usable cellular energy through cellular respiration.
This usable energy is adenosine triphosphate ATP
Tissues
Group of similar cells that work together to perform a singular function are classified as tissues
4 Basic Tissues
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous tissue
Epithelial Tissue
covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and serves as a protective barrier
Connective Tissue
Connects other tissues to each other and serves to bind and support body parts
Muscle tissue
Moves the body and its contents by contraction
Nervous Tissue
Receives stimuli from the internal or external environment and communicates through electrical impulses with the rest of the body
Organs
Tissues are organized into organs
Consists of two or more different tissues and have a specific shape and function
Not all organs are internal like skin (made up of all 4 tissue)
Kidney is internal organ with a definite shape consisting of epithelial, connective, and nervous tissue. Its main function is to recycle nutrients and filter wastes from the blood
Organ System
Related organs with a common multifaceted function make up an organ system
organ systems work together in a harmonized fashion to maintain homeostasis
Ex. Digestive and Respiratory
Digestive System
has the function of breaking down and processing the food we eat, and eliminating the solid waste
Performs this function with many organs including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas
Respiratory System
performs the function of exchanging the gas of CO2 for Os with the coordinated effort of the organs of the pharynx, larynx, bronchus, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm
The Respiratory Systems Main Functions
Are extracting oxygen from the atmosphere and expelling carbon dioxide from the body into the air
Constructed to maximize surface area for the exchange of gases
Alveoli are the sites in the lower part of the lungs where gases are exchanged between respiratory and circulatory systems
The Anatomy of the respiratory System
Mediates the uptake of oxygen for metabolism and the release of carbon dioxide a waste product into the atmosphere
The process of aerating the lungs is known as ventilation
How the respiratory system is divided
Its divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract.
Upper respiratory tract
Nose, Nasal Cavity, Paranasal sinuses, oral cavity, pharynx, glottis, and larynx
Lower respiratory tract
begins at trachea and extends into the lungs via repeated branching of bronchus into bronchioles and ending at the alveoli, where gas exchanges occur
Lungs
are the organs of respiration and are divided into lobes: three lobes on the right and two lobes on the left
Each lobe is contained with a tough, protective double membrane called the pleura, with pleural fluid in between. The lungs are housed within the pleural cavity
The Passage of Air in the Upper respiratory Tract
Begins in the nose and nasal cavity where it is filtered, warmed, and moistened. Air also entered through the oral cavity via the mouth.
Air continues to flow from the nasal and oral cavities into the pharynx.
A flap called the epiglottis covers the opening of the glottis during swallowing to prevent food and liquids from entering the lungs. The glottis is the passageway for air through the vocal chords and leads to the larynx (voice box)
Oxygen flow continues from the larynx into the trachea which is the beginning of the lower respiratory tract. The trachea then splits into two main branches right and left primary bronchi repeatedly into the smaller secondary and even smaller tertiary bronchi then branch into miscropic tubes of Bronchioles that divides further until they termite in the air sacs of lungs known as alveoli.
Inhaled oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells in the surrounding capillaries and from there into nearby tissues. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissues into the red blood cells and then the alveoli to be exhaled from the lungs
Pharynx
a pathway beginning in the back of the throat and ending at the glottis.
Is also a shared passageway for both air and food and contains an opening for the digestive system, as well as the continuation of the respiratory system at the glottis
Trachea
also known as as the windpipe, consists of a rigid tube of cartilaginous rings and lies anterior to the esophagus
The trachea then splits into two main branches that enter the lungs as the right and left primary bronchi
Alveoli
The walls of the alveoli are single layer of epithelial tissue, which allows for the simple diffusion of gases in and out
they are surrounded by capillaries whose walls also consist of a single layer of epithelial cells
Ventilation
is the movement of air in and out of the lungs
The medulla oblongata and pons in the brainstem monitor the levels of CO2 and ph in the blood. Increasing levels of CO2 causes an increase in H+ ions which makes the blood more acidic that stimulates inhalation
Inhalation
During inhalation, the muscular diaphragm below the rib cage and the intercostal muscles between the ribs contract at the same time.
This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and in turn causes the lung volume to increase. The alveolar pressure inside of the lung therefore decreases causing air to flow into the lungs down the pressure gradient from high (outside lungs) to low (inside lungs)
Exhalation
occurs passively with the relaxation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
the thoracic cavity decreases in volume, causing a concomitant decrease in the lung volume. Alveolar pressure increases, and the elastic recall from the lungs and thoracic wall causes air to flow out of the lungs once again down the pressure gradient
Lung volumes and capacities
are measurable quantities
tidal volume, Total lung capacity, Vital capacity, Residual volume
Tidal Volume
The tidal volume is the amount of air entering the lungs during the normal breathing cycle
Total lung capacity
the amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration or deep breath
Vital capacity
the amount of gas that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration, as in exhaling after a deep breath
Residual volume
is the amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration
VC +RV=TLC
Surface tension within lungs
Water causes an increase in surface tension, making water sticky.
The watery fluid in the alveoli would cause the sides of the alveoli to stick together, causing collapse of the lungs, known as atelectasis
Surfactant is a lipid mixture normally secreted by cells in the lungs, which reduces the surface tension, those preventing the sides of the alveoli from sticking together and avoiding atelectasis
Lung Compliance
is a measure of the ease of expanding the lungs.
depends on the elasticity of the lung tissue and the alveolar surface tension
emphysema causes destruction of elastic tissue causing a greater than normal expansion of the lungs but poor recoil and increased residual volume.
Asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer cause increased resistance to lung expansion, resulting in a low compliance
External Factors Affecting Lung Function
Cystic fibrosis is a dramatically impair lung compliance causes the normally slipper mucous secreted into the lungs to become thick and sticky. that can clog the airways, leading to severe breathing problems and increased susceptibility to bacterial infections
Cardiovascular System
Or the circulatory system is responsible for the movement of blood and lymph around the body that allows nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication, and protection.
This system comprises the closed system of blood pumped around the body by the heart through a network of arteries, veins, and capillaries
also the open lymphatic system which contains lymph that bathes the interstitial spaces between cells and circulates through lymph vessels.
Anatomy of the Cardiovascular system
Made of four main components: the heart, blood vessels, blood, and lymphatic system
The Heart
Heart is a large muscular organ comprised of cardiac tissue called the myocardium and is surrounded by a sac called the pericardium.
It contains four chambers divided by a medium septum
The two superior atria are the receiving chambers and the two inferior ventricles are the pumping chambers.
The atria and ventricle are separated by the atrioventricular vales
The right and left sides of the heart
The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood from the heart towards the lungs (Pulmonary system)
The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it toward the rest of the body parts (systemic system)
The vessels
The blood pumped by the heart travels through the extensive conduits of the vessels.
Arteries, Veins, Capillaries
Arteries
Arteries are the vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick layer of smooth muscle in their walls to withstand the pressure of the forceful heartbeat. Large arteries branch into increasingly smaller arterioles that eventually connect to a bed of capillaries
Capillaries
Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels thats walls are only one cell thick. Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs between the alveoli of lungs and the capillary beds of the CV system.Exchange of gases and nutrients also occurs between capillariy beds and tissues throughout the body.
Veins
Carry blood from the body parts toward the heart.
Are connected to capillary beds by smaller branches called venues
Veins and Venules have thinner walls because they are farther from the force of the heartbeat and so experience less pressure on their walls
Also have one way valves to prevent blood from flowing back into the system
Blood
is composed of plasma and formed elements
The formed elements are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Plasma
is straw colored liquid that contains water, immune proteins, and other nutrients
Erythrocytes
Or red blood cells are a major component of blood and contain the protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and helps return carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.
Leukocytes
or white blood cells are the immune response agents and defend the body against disease
Platelets
responsible for the clotting mechanism
Lymphatic vessels and Lymph
lymphatic vessels are linked to lymph nodes and lymphatic capillaries
Lymph Vessels similar to veins they are thin-walled and contain one way valves to maintain flow in one direction only
Lymphatic Capillaries
are entwined with cardiovascular capillaries and absorb excess tissue fluid and blood plasma that leaks from capillaries
This lymph fluid is filtered through hundreds of small organs called lymph nodes distributed throughout the body. Lymph nodes are concentrated in the neck, armpit, and groin and contain lymphocytes that seek out pathogens in the fluid.
Lymphocytes make antibodies which target the pathogens so that other cells can destroy them. Filtered lymph fluid is basically cleaned blood plasma and is returned to the cardiovascular system by the veins
Heartbeat
is known as the cardiac cycle that ensures that the heart chambers contract in a coordinated way.
Starts with the triggering of an impulse within the Sinoatrial (SA) node called the pacemaker and it is located in the upper wall of the right atrium
The impulse spreads to the right and left atria, causing them to contract and forcing blood into the ventricles. The impulse then reaches the Atrioventricular node (AV) that is also located in the right atrial wall and travels along the atrioventricular bundle down the right and left branches in the septum and finally along the purkinje fibers in the walls of the ventricle, causing the filled ventricles to contract.
Contraction of the atria followed by the ventricles is called SYSTOLE. then followed by DIASTOLE, the rest phase when the chambers relax and refill.
External control of the heart if managed in the cardiac center of the brain and modulated by the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine
The Flow of Blood through the heart
Blood is pumped from the heart into two separate closed systems.
Pulmonary recieves deoxygenated blood into the right atrium from the body by the superior and inferior vena cava.
Contraction of the right atrium pumps blood through the right AV valve into right ventricle. Contraction of the right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood up into the pulmonary artery though the pulmonary semilunar valve and to the lungs. Oxygenated blood from the lungs travels by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. The systemic system carries oxygenated blood when the left atrium contracts forcing blood through the left AV valve into the left ventricle. Contraction of the left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic semilunar valve through the aorta towards the rest of the body. The closing of the av valves makes the lub or first heart sound and the closing of the semilunar valves make the dub or second heart sound.
Monitoring Disorders of the Cardiovascular System
Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury and expressed as the maximum pressure over the minimum pressure with an average reading of 120/70 mm Hg.
Systole
the contraction of the heart causes the blood to push against the muscular walls of the arteries to a maximum pressure
Diastole
when the heart relaxes the elasticity in the vessel walls recoils and the pressure decreases to a minimum
Hypertension
High blood pressure can cause rupture of the smaller arterioles and capillaries possible leading to a stroke
Atherosclerosis
Is a buildup of plaque in blood vessels that reduces the flow of blood through the vessel and a piece of plaque can travel to smaller vessels causing a blockage.
Plaque or clotted blood traveling through vessels is called embolus
Stroke
occurs when the normal blood flow to the brain is stopped either by a blockage or by a rupture of a blood vessel causing death of brain tissue
Heart Attack
Or Myocardia infarction, occurs when the flow of blood to a part of the heart muscle is blocked causing the cardiac muscle tissue to die
Gastrointestinal System
Referred to the digestive system or the alimentary canal
located in the abdominal cavity and is specialized for breaking down food for absorption and distribution to the rest of the body
Specialized regions and glands perform both mechanical and chemical (enzymatic) digestion
blood vessels absorb the digested nutrients, and smooth muscle involved in moving material through the digestive is under parasympathetic nervous system control
Roles of Digestion
Functions to break down macromolecules into small nutrient molecules that are then absorbed into the circulatory system and distributed to the cells of the tissues throughout the body
Also forms and eliminates undigested waste
5 steps of Digestion
ingestion: the intake of food
Digestion: the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
Movement of the food through the GI tract through peristalsis
Absorption of nutrients into tissue cells
Elmination of undigested waste
Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive System
Food enters the system through the mouth where three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva that contains amylase an enzyme that begins carbohydrate digestion in the mouth.
The teeth begin the mechanical breakdown of food by chewing (mastication) and mixing it with enzymes and saliva.
The tongue forms a bolus (small parcel of chewed food) and moves it toward the pharynx.
The pharynx is a cavity between the mouth and esophagus that serves as a passageway for food and air
The bolus is swelled (deglutination) and the epiglottis closes off the opening to the trachea so food only enters the esophagus which is a long muscular tube that carries food to the stomach by a wavelike involuntary smooth muscle contraction called peristalsis.
When food reaches the distal potion of the esophagus, the sphincter between the esophagus and stomach relaxes to let food pass into the stomach. The sphincter then contracts preventing stomach acid from backing up into the esophagus (gastric reflux)
The stomach
Has colds called rugae that increase the holding capacity of the stomach to about 1 liter.
The mechanical mixing action of the stomach mixes the boluses of food with gastric juices to form partially digested liquid called chyme
Gastric Juice
A mixture of mucus, hydrochloric acid, and digestive enzymes secreted by the various cells of the stomach.
The chief cells secrete pepsinogen
Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid
Goblet cells secrete mucous
Chief Cells
Secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of pepsin used in protein digestion and the enzyme gastric lipase, which digests fat
Parietal cells
secrete hydrochloric acid which converts the inactive pepsinogen to its active pepsin form
Goblet cells
in the gastric lining secrete mucous for protection against the highly acidic hydrogen chloride.
Gastrin
Hormone secreted in the stomach.
Stimulate the secretion of the gastric juices, and the hormone ghrelin stimulates the appetite and promotes storage of fats
Functions of the stomach
Stores food boluses, continues the process of mechanical and chemical digestion, and controls the movement of chyme into duodenum of the small intestine
Small Intestine
Is about 18 feet in length and has a large surface area created by repeated folds within its walls which enhance digestion and absorption
Divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Duodenum is the short section attached to the pyloric sphincter of the stomach
As Chyme leaves the stomach
It is acted upon by enzymes from the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas.
The live produces alkaline bile secreted by the gall bladder to aid in the emulisification and breakdown of fats. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which is a mixture of water, salts, bicarbonate, and many digestive enzymes.
Large intestine
Includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal
Chyme leaves the ileum and enters into the cecum. The cecum has a projection known as the appendix, which can play a role in the immune system.
The colons division
The colon is divided into four sections: ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid.
as feces travels through the colon water is absorbed. Bacteria in the colon metabolize the fecal matter and produce vitamins like vitamin K and is absorbed
Fecal waste accumulates and is stored in the rectum until it is ejected through the anus by defecation /
