General Anatomy Flashcards
techniques used to study anatomy
dissection microscopy radiology ultrasonography radiology CT scan MRI
describe Natal prenatal postnatal neonates infants adolescents puberty
associated with childbirth
stage from fertilization to childbirth
stage from birth till death
first month of life (4weeks )
from birth till year one
the interval from begins from puberty and ends with completed growth
sequence of rapid events by which a child transfroms into a young adult
decribe anatomical position
When a person standing erect,upperlimb hanging by the sides and palms of hands directing forward and toes of feet also directing forward and eyes looking at the horizon
describe plane median plane sagittal plane coronal plane transverse plane oblique plane
PlanesDefined as a 2 dimensional flat surface or it is an imaginary flat surface formed by the extension of a point.
Median PlanePlane divides the body in two equal halves.
Sagittal Plane
It is parallel to median Plane.
Coronal PlaneIt is at right angle to the sagittal plane
Horizontal/Transaxial/Transverse PlaneIt is at right angle to both sagittal and coronal plane.
Oblique PlaneAt any angle to all of the above planes.
define longitudinal section vertical section cross section oblique section
LogitudinalPart of the body length wise.
VerticalLongitudinal section when body is in anatomical position.
Cross-sectionAt right angle to longitudinal.
Oblique SectionAt any angle to all of the above sections.
describe rems anterior/ventral posterior/ dorsal cephalic/superior caudal/inferior proximal distal
Anterior/VentralFront of the body.
Posterior/DorsalBack of the body.
Cephalic/SuperiorTowards the head,near the vertex of the head.
Caudal/InferiorNear sole/foot
Proximal(Nearer to)Near the point of its origin i.e,Shoulder is proximal to elbow
Distal(Further from)Away from the point
describe term lateral medial ipsilateral contralateral external internal superficial deep
LateralAway from the median plane
MedialNear the median plane
IpsilateralStructure located on the same side of the body
ContralateralStructure located on the ooppsite side.
ExternalOuter/Nearer the surface
InternalFurther away from the surface.
SuperficialNearer the skin.
DeepFurther away from it.
describe flexor extensor palmer planter dorsal ventral
FlexorAnterior surface of upper limb and posterior surface of lower limb.
ExtensorPosterior surface of upper limb and anterior surface of lower limb.
PalmerAnterior surface of hand (specific for hand).
PlanterInferior surface of foot.
DorsalPosterior surface of hand and anterior surface of foot.
VentralRefers to the front or anterior surface of the body.
describe translation
Relative displacement of one bone in relation to other (slides over other) No angulation eg, Intercarpal Joints
describe abduction adduction
AbductionPart of body moves away from median plane.
AdductionPart of body move towards the median plane
decribe angulation, flexion and extension
AngulationMovement at a joint in which angle between long axis of bone involved changes It has two types1.Flexion/BendingMovement in which two flexor surfaces move close (angle is decreased)2.ExtentionOpposite movement in which flexor surfaces move away from eachother.
describe median rotation lateral rotation and circumduction
- Median Rotation:Referance point moves toward midline.
- Lateral Rotation:Referance point moves away from the midline.
circumduction is combination of flexion extension, aduction , abduction
Movement of body region in circular manner in which one end of the body region being moved stays relativelt stationary which other end moves in circle.
what is pronation and supination
what is inversion and eversion
feet facing each other
feet facing away from each other
what are the structure met in discection
Skin Superficial Fascia Deep Fascia Vessels(Arteries,Veins,Capillaries and Lypmh vessels) Nerves Mucles Bones.Joints,Cartilage
define epidermis
It is an avascular superficial layer that consists of stratified sqaumous epithelium.
define epidermis
It is an avascular superficial layer that consists of stratified sqaumous epithelium.
describe dermis
Deeper,Vascular,dense fibrous tissue It sends small peg like protrusions into epidermis that helps bind epidermis to dermis by increasing surface area of contact.
what is fascia and is principal layer
layers of fibrou tisssue that seperate skin from deeper structures
superficial and deep fascia
describe superficial fascia
It is a fibrous mesh filled with fats connects the dermis to the underlying layer of deep fascia.Its thickness varies with the amounts of fats it contains.It is dense in back of neck,scalp,palms and soles.Thinnest in eyelids.
describe deep fascia
A layer of dense connective tissue that surrounds muscles,bones,nerves and blood vessels.Examples.1.Traverse Fascia2.Parietal fascia3.Deep cervical Fascia
describe arties and its properties
Tubes which convey blood from heart to the tissue at high pressure
.Largest arterty =Elastic aorta size 2.5cm in diameter
Smallest = arterioles size > 1mm in diameter
define anastomosis and its significance
Anastomosis: Smallest arteries unite to form tubular loops.
Important in maintaining circulation when one artery is blocked.
describe capillaries
The small microscopic tubes that form a network through which arterioles discharge blood into the veins.Capillary wall consists or single layer of endothelial cellsthrough wich substances are exchanged between the blood and the tissues
amount of blood and pressure inn capillaries dpend on
1) Degree of contraction of arterioles
2) Activity of tissue they supply
describe veins
Blood from capillaries reaches veins.
Sluggish blood flow is aided by the:
1) Contraction of surrounding muscles causing contraction.
2) Fall of the pressure in thorax with each inspiration draws venous blood into the thorax.
Presence of Valves prevents any tendancy to backward flow of the blood.
describe lymph vessels
Lymph vessels are fine tubes that contain a clear fluid.
It provides a mechanism of exchange of substances between tissues and blood.
1) Afferent vessels (carrying fluid towards lymph node)
2) Efferent vessels (carrying fluid away from the lymph)
describe bone as a connective tissue
Specialized connective tissue,that is composed of intercelluar calcified matrix and three cells.1.Osteoblasts2.Osteocyte3.Osteoclast
Intracellular substance consists of dense, white fibrous tissue embedded in hard calcium phosphate.
Fibrous tissue provides Resilience.
Calcium phosphate provide resistance against compression forces.
what are the layers of bone
Endosteum:Convering bone internally
Periosteum:Covering bone externally
what are the functions of bone
Shape and support to body
Resist any form of stress
Provide surface attachment to muscles, tendons and ligaments.
Serves as lever to muscular action.
Skull, vertebral column and rib cage protects brain, spinal cord and visceras resectively.
Bone manufactures blood cells.
Bone stores 97% of body calcium and phosphorous
Reticulo-endothelial system that is phagocytic in nature and take part in immune responses of body.
Larger paranasal sinuses provides resonation to the voice and humidifies the inspired air
describe periosteum
It is a dense layer of connective tissue which covers the external surface of bone except where they articulate with the synovial joint.
Continous with deep fascia, muscles, tendon, ligament, fibrous capsule of joint.
Bone is smooth where covered by articular cartilage, that gives fleshy attachment to muscles and subcutaneous
Bone is roughened where attached to ligaments, aponeurosis, tendons.
Bone is grooved where arteries pass.
what are the layers of periosteum
fibrous layer
osteogenic layer
what is the function periosteum and endosteum
Principal function of both layers is to provide nutrition to osseous tissue and provision of a continuous supply of new osteoblasts for repair and growth of bone.
what is structural classification of bone
compact
spongy
describe compact bone
- It is dense form of bone which forms tubular bodies of long bone filled with yellow bone marrow.
- Dense in texture but extremly porous.
- It has haversion system which contains yellow,longitudinal laminated tubules.
- It is best developed in the cortex of long bones.Examples:Bones of upper and lower limb
what is haversion system
Structural component of bone is called osteon,or Haversion system.It is an elongated cylinder
Oriented parallel to the long axis of the bone.
describe osteon
A central haversion canal with concentric rings(known as lamellae) of bone matrix runing length wise.
A central canal carries nerves and vessels throughout the areas of bone.
Canaliculi:Tiny canals radiate outward from central canals towards each lacunae space.
Volkmann’s canal:These are the canals that run at the right angle to the central canals forming a connection between the two.
describe spongy bones
It has a spongy of bony spicules and trabaculaes giving it a honeycomb appearance.
Occurs in end of long bone(epiphysis) and fills the flat and irregular bone.The spaces between spicules is filled with red bone marrow.
what are trabeculae’s
Rods and plates are irregularly arrangedand osteocytes.They doesnot contain osteon and gains their nutrition directly fromred bone marrow.
what is regional classification bone
axial skeleton
appendiculr skeleton
what is axial skeleton
The axial skeleton is a part of skeleton that consists of bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate.
what are the bones of axial skeleton
It consists of 80 bones in total and is composed of 6 parts.1.Skull(cranium,face) 82.Hyoid bone 13.Ossicle of Middle ear 64.Sternum 15.Rib Cage 246.Vertebral column 26
what are functions of axial skeleton
Axial skeleton forms central axis of body.
Provides support and protectionto brain, spinalcord and other important organs present in the ventralbody cavity.
Provides attachment to muscles of head, neck &trunk.
Performs respiratory movements.
Stabilizes appendicular skeleton.
what is appendicular skeleton
It is a portion of skeleton consisting of the bones that support the appendanges.
It includes 1)Bone elements with in both upper and lower limbs.2)Supporting Pectoral(shoulder)girdle.3)Supporting Pelvic(Hip) girdle.
It consists of 126 bones.
what are the bones of appendicular skeleton
Pectoral(shoulder)girdle Clavicle 2 Scapula 2 Upper extermities Humerus 2 Ulna 2 Radius 2 Carpals 16 Metacarpals 10 Phalanges 28
Pelvic(hip) girdlePelvic/hip bone 2
Lower ExtermitiesFemur 2Fibula 2Tibia 2 Patella 2Tarsals 14Metatarsals 10Phalanges 28
what are the functions of appendicular skeleton
It supports the attachment of muscles of upper and lower limbs.
Upper limbs and hands functions to grasp and manipulate objects.
Lower limbs and pelvic girldle permits locomotion and bears weight of the body.
classification of bones according to shape
long short flat irregular pneumatic sesmoid
describe the strcutur of long bone
Each long bone has elongated shaft called diaphysis,two expanded ends known as epiphysis and a narrow portion b/w epiphysis and diaphysis is called metaphysis.Cortex:Outer layer of boneMedullary cavity:Space inside the cortex housed by bone marrow
classification of long bones
a) Typical:Humerus,radius,ulna,femur,tibia,fibula
b) Minaiture:With one epiphysis I.e,metacarpals,metatarsals,phalanges
c) Modified:with no medullary cavityE,g.Clavicle
describe short bones
Their shapes are usually trapezoid,scaphoid,cuneiform or cuboid.Examples:tarsals and carpal bones
describe flat bones
Resembles shallow plates and forms boundaries of cavities.Examples:Skull,Ribs,Sternum,and scapula
desribe irregular bones
These are peculiarly shaped to provide protection and support to body.Allows Flexibilty
Examples:Hip bonesVertebral columnHyoid bone
describe pneumatic bones
Certain bones in skull contains large air spaces lined by epithelium.
Examples:Maxilla,sphenoid,ethmoid
describe sesmoid bone
Bony nodules found embedded in the joint capsules and tendons.They have no periosteum and ossify after birth.
Examples:Patella.fabella,pisiform etc
what is osteogenesis
The developmental process of bone is known as osteogenesis(also called ossification).
what are the types of ossification
intramembranous
intracartilgenous
describe intramembranous ossification
Immature embryonic connective tissue i,e mesenchyme forms layers/memberanes within which bone forming cells i,e osteoblasts lay down unmineralized bone matrix.
Later mineralized by the deposition of calcium phosphate also secreted by osteoblasts.
This method is direct and quick and forms memberane bones.
Flate bones of skull are formed by this method.
describe intra-cartilaginous ossification
A miniature cartilaginous model of hyaline cartilage is first formed.Bone formation occurs in centre of model called as primary centre.Primary centre spread bone formation towards bone ends.At bone ends secondary centres are forming bone and length of bone increases.
At the time of birth primary centres are present.
After birth secondary centre appear.
Primary and secondary centre fuse in adulthood.
In this kind of ossification hyaline cartilage is not converted into bone but replaced by the bone.
For example:Long bone growth
define and describe joints
Joint is a point of connection between two bones
Strands of connective tissue, ligaments, hold the bones together and ensure the stability of joints
classification of joints according to their motion
Synarthroses
Immovable
Amphiarthroses
Slightly movable
Diarthroses
Allow the greatest amount of motion
classification of joints on the bases of material that joins them
Fibrous joint
Allow no movement
E.g. sutures of the scull
Cartilaginous joints
Allow limited movement
E.g. intervertebral discs
Synovial joints
Allow large range of movements
E.g. hip joint
describe fibrous joint and its types
When bones are connected by dense connective tissue, consisting of collagen
They are further divided into 3 types
Sutures
Syndesmoses
Gomphoses
describe sutures
They are found between bones of skull
In fetal skull the sutures are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid
describe syndesmoses
They are found between long bones of the body
Like btw radius and ulna
They are moveable but not such degree like synovial.
describe gamphosis
It is found between the root of a tooth and socket in the maxilla and mandible
describe cartilaginous joints
They are connected entirely by the cartilage
They allow more movement than fibrous joints but less than highly mobile synovial joints
An example would be joint between manubrium and sternum
They also forms the growth regions of immature long bones and the intervertebral discs of spinal column
describe primary cartilaginous joints
Connecting medium is by hyaline cartilage sometimes occurring between ossification centres
They generally allow no movement
Example in human are joint btw manubrium and sternum and growth plates between ossification centres
describe secondary cartilaginous joints
Bones are covered by hyaline cartilage and joined by fibrocartilage
They allow limited degree of movement
Example in human would be intervertebral disc
define and state characteristics of synovial joints
These are the joints which are most mobile
Characteristics of Synovial Joints
Articular surfaces
Hyaline cartilage
A protective layer of dense white connective tissue that covers the ends of the articulating bones
Joint cavity
Synovial membrane
Covers joint cavity, except over the surfaces of the articular cartilages
Secretes the lubrication fluid
Synovial fluid
Lubricates the joint
Capsule
May or may not have thickenings called intrinsic ligaments
Extrinsic ligaments
Support the joint and connect the articulating bones of the joint
what are the types of synovial joints
uniaxial (rotation only about one axis) biaxial joints (movement about two perpendicular axes) multiaxial joints (movement about all three perpendicular axes)
synovial joints are classified into
- Hinge Joint
- Pivot Joint
- Condyloid Joint
- Ellipsoid Joint
- Saddle-shaped joint
- Ball and Socket Joint
- Plane Joint
describe the characteristics of plane joint
Uniaxial
(permits sliding and gliding movements)
The bone surfaces involved are nearly flat
E.g. intercarpal joints and Intermetatarsal joints
Acromioclavicular joint of the vertebrae
gliding joint
describe the characteristics of hinge joint
Uniaxial
Has one articulating surface that is convex, and another that is concave.(One end is like cylinder shape and other is trough shaped.)
Like a hinge of the door.
Allows Flexion and Extension
E.g. humero-ulnar elbow joint, interphalangeal joint Knee Joint (Modified Hinge joint) ginglymus joint
describe the characteristic of pivot joint
Uniaxial
Cylinderical bony processRotating within a circle of bone and ligament.(Longitudinal axis)
Rotational movement along one axis
E.g. head of radius rotating against ulna
Proximal radioulnar joint
Distal radioulnar joint
Atlantoaxial joint
describe elipsoid joint
Biaxial Joint.Movement around two axis (flexion-extension, abduction-adduction,Circumduction) The joint surfaces are usually oval One joint surface is an ovular convex shape, and the other is a reciprocally shaped concave surface Radiocarpal Joint(Wrist Joint) Metacarpophalangeal joint
an example of condyloid joint
temporomandibular joint
describe saddle joint
Biaxial (flexion-extension, abduction-adduction)
Joints are formed by concavo-convex opposing surface.
Saddle of horse and Rider
Flexion,extension,abduction,adduction(greater degree of movement)
E.g.Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
describe ball and socket joint
Multiaxial (rotation in all planes)
A rounded bone(globular head) is fitted into a cup=like receptacle concavity or socket
Allows all types of movements
E.g. shoulder and hip joints
what is gliding movement
Simplest movementOne surface slides over anotherIntercarpal and Intertarsal Joints
what are functions of muscles
Mobility • Restriction of movement. & liberation of heat e.g. shivering. • Body contour & shape • Maintenance of normal physiological equilibrium of body.
what are muscle tissue properties
Irritability or Excitability …to be stimulated Contractility …to contract (shorten) Extensibility …to be stretched Elasticity …return to original position after being stretched
structural classification of muscles
Skeletal muscles
Cardiac muscles
Smooth muscles
what are the different classifications of muscles
According to structure
According to function
According to development
According to phylogenetic history
what are tendons
Three membranes converge to form a tendon which connects the muscle to the bone
classification of muscles according to function
Voulntary muscles
Involuntary muscles
describe classification of muscles according to development
Mesodermal muscles Skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles and most of the smooth muscles Ectodermal muscles Muscles in iris, skin and sweat glands Endodermal muscles Myoepithelial cells of sweat glands
describe classification of muscles according to phylogenetic history
Somatic muscles Develop from paraxial mesoderm Innervated my somatic nervous system Help in adaptation to prevailing external envoirnment Visceral muscles Develop from unspecialised mesoderm Innervated by autonomic nervous system Control and adjust internal envoirnment
what are the different classification of skeletal muscles
According to architechture
According to colour
According to action
According to mode of attachment
describe classification of muscles according to architecture
Muscles with parallel fibres
Quadilateral - thyrohyoid
Strap shaped -rectus abdominis
Fusiform/spindle shaped – biceps brachii
Muscles with oblique fibres
Triangular broad origin
e.g Temporalis, pectoralis major
Pennate feather like
Obliquely attached to tendon
Types are unipennate, bipennate, multi-pennate
Radial circumpennate
Fibre originate from wall of cylindrical outer facial convey to central tendon e.g muscles of eye
Spiral Muscles :
Twist with muscles (e.g latismus dorsi) or muscle spiral around bone (e.g supinator)
Cruciate Muscles :
Muscles arranged in two planes which cross each other
e.g Sternocleidomastoid
Circular Muscles :
e.g Orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris
Convergant Muscles :
e.g Sartorius
describe classification of muscles according to architecture
Muscles with parallel fibres
Quadilateral - thyrohyoid
Strap shaped -rectus abdominis
Fusiform/spindle shaped – biceps brachii
Muscles with oblique fibres
Triangular broad origin
e.g Temporalis, pectoralis major
Pennate feather like
Obliquely attached to tendon
Types are unipennate, bipennate, multi-pennate
Radial circumpennate
Fibre originate from wall of cylindrical outer facial convey to central tendon e.g muscles of eye
Spiral Muscles :
Twist with muscles (e.g latismus dorsi) or muscle spiral around bone (e.g supinator)
Cruciate Muscles :
Muscles arranged in two planes which cross each other
e.g Sternocleidomastoid
Circular Muscles :
e.g Orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris
Convergant Muscles :
e.g Sartorius
describe classification of muscles according to colour
Red muscles
Red colour due to increased mitochondria, myoglobin, vascularity
White muscle
White colour due to decreased mitochondria, myoglobin, vascularity
describe classification of muscles according to action
Agonist
prime mover
Antagonist
action opposite to the agonist
Stabilizers
fixate or stabilize the joint
Synergists
assist or guiding
describe the parts of muscles and their characteristics
Origin
proximal attachment
least moveable end
closest to the midline of the body
Insertion
distal attachment
most moveable end
furthest from the midline of the body
Belly
Action
The movement at the joint when the muscle(s) contractdescribe the different types of muscle contraction
Concentric contraction
Length of muscle shortens
Muscle force is greater than the resistance
If lifting 50 pounds and the muscle generates more than 50 pounds the muscle with shorten and move the weight.
Static or Isometric contraction
No change in muscle length
Muscle force is equal to the resistance
Lifting 50 pounds and the muscle generates 50 pounds of force
Eccentric contraction
Muscle lengthens
Muscle force is less than the resistance
Lowering 50 pounds and the muscle generates less than 50 pounds
what is muscle spasm, its properties and cause
Amuscle spasmis a sudden, involuntary contraction of one or moremuscles.
Aspasmresults from an abnormally sustainedmusclecontraction
It is often painful
what are the causes of muscle spasm
Dehydration Hypocalcemia Depleted level of sodium, potassium and magnesium Depleted carbohydrates level Vitamin deffeciencies Poor blood circulation
what is somatic nervous system
Relay information between skin, skeletal muscles and central nervous system
You consciously control this pathway
Contains sensory & motor neurons
describe autonomic nervous system
Relay information from central nervous system to organs
Involuntary: You do not consciously control these
Sympathetic Nervous System: controls in times of stress, such as the flight or fight response
Parasympathetic Nervous System: controls body in times of rest
