Gender P3

Question 1

Sex vs gender

Answer 1

Sex; Biological differences between males and females (including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy)
XX-> female
XY-> male

Gender ; Psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females. For example, attitudes, behaviours and social roles.

Question 2

Sex-role stereotype

Answer 2

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for male and females within a given society

Question 3

POSITIVES OF SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPES (baby x experiment) + eval

Answer 3

Smith + Lloyd (1987)
(BABY X experiment)
= Investigated Whether parents reinforced gender appropriate behavior but not gender inappropriate behavior.

Procedure:
- 4 month old babies dressed in either unisex snowsuits + were given names that were sometimes in line with their sex. // dressed in clothing associated with a particular gender (ie blue - boy, pink- girl).
- Videotaped women playing with them.
- 7 toys in a room, some were male associated ( hammer), others female (a doll), some neutral (ball).

Findings:
-The babies were treated by the women according to the gender the perceived them to be (or via toys) Women selected gender-appropriate toys. Responded more actively when a ‘boy’ showed increased motor activity, and calming/soothing when a ‘girl’ did.
THEREFORE, socialisation plays a role in the development of sex-role stereotypes.

THEREFORE, they concluded that environmental influences from parents/other adults may reinforce our gender stereotypes and gender development.

Eval

Pros:
1) Real life application
= The experiment supported the prevalence of gender stereotypes reinforced by parents/other adults through the likelihood of the women giving the perceived baby the ‘traditional’ toy for its corresponding gender. This means that their findings can be applied to real life to better our society, reducing such stereotypes. By making the participants and those that are familiar with the study aware of their unconscious gender stereotypes, we can consciously promote neutral behaviour towards children to reduce the impacts we may have on their later behaviour (regarding gender).

2) Lab experiment
- same room, same toys so reduced influence of extraneous variables.
- standardised procedure and instructions, high replicability and reliability (consistent).

CONS
1) Low temporal validity (1978)
- Results may not show gender-stereotypes today.
2) women used only -> ungeneralisable
3) lab exp -> demand c

Question 4

What studies are there for the explanation of how sex-role stereotypes are transmitted?

Answer 4

• Baby X (Smith and Llyod)
• Williams
• Furnham and Farragher
• Ingalhalikar et al

Question 5

Williams’ (1986) study on sex-role stereotypes + eval

Answer 5

= Investigated if the introduction of TV into an isolated community would affect gender attitudes.

Procedure:
- Natural experiment in an isolated community (Notel) where TV was about to be introduced for the first time.
-Measures of attitudes and behavior were taken before and after the introduction of TV. Two other towns were used for comparison.

Findings:
- In two years following the introduction of TV, the children of Notel became much more stereotyped in their gender attitudes. There were no corresponding changes in the comparison towns.

THEREFORE, this suggests that children were observing the gender stereotypical behavior as being shown on TV and retaining this information which led them to modeling those behaviors.

Eval
PRO:
1) naturalistic -> unlikely for demand characteristics, high eco val

CONS:
1) Cannot control EV’s -> could affect validity ie family size, amount of TV watched, parents choice of programs. Unscientific. Therefore, further research needed to support the impact of TV on gender stereotypes.
2) Low temporal validity
3) Ungeneralisable to other cultures (Canada)

PRO:
1) naturalistic -> unlikely for demand characteristics, high eco val

CONS:
1) Cannot control EV’s -> could affect validity ie family size, amount of TV watched, parents choice of programs. Unscientific. Therefore, further research needed to support the impact of TV on gender stereotypes.
2) Low temporal validity
3) Ungeneralisable to other cultures (Canada)

Question 6

Furnham and Farragher (2000) study on sex-role stereotypes + eval

Answer 6

= Investigated sexual stereotypes and TV adverts.

Procedure:
- Analysed adverts on TV in terms of what roles males and females were portrayed in.

Findings:
- They found that males were more likely to be shown an autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas females were often seen occupying familial rules with domestic settings.

THEREFORE, This demonstrates the existence of sexual stereotypes and the role the media has on reinforcing them.

EVAL:
1) Content analysis
= Objective, clearly labelled behavioural categories to count
2) Low temporal validity

Question 7

Ingalhalikar (SRS) + eval

Answer 7

= Investigated biological differences in male and female brains.

Procedure:
- Scanned the brains of 949 young men and women using MRIs. They mapped the connections between the different parts of the brain.

Findings:
- Women’s brains -> far better connections between the two hemispheres (less lateralised )
- Men’s brains -> more intense activity within the brain’s individual parts especially the cerebellum (motor skills).

THEREFORE, They suggested that the female brain is hardwired to cope with several tasks at once whereas the male brain prefers to focus on a single complex task (ie men cannot multi-task). This suggest there is a biological basis for sex-role stereotypes.

Eval
PROS:
1) Scientific/ lab
= MRI’s -> objective data, non-debatable + empirical
= control EV’s
= High validity
2) Large sample size. generalisable

CONS:
1) Cannot establish cause and effect
= Ignores nurture ie , was their environment what changed their brains or was it that their biological gender changed their brains?
2) Ungeneralisable to older people -> could be generational differences

Question 8

Androgenous def

Answer 8

When an individual possesses a combination of highly masculine and feminine traits within one’s personality.

Question 9

Is there a link between sex and androgyny?

Answer 9

NO
Masculinity and femininity are independent traits - they are not linked to sex (biology).

= A person can score high or low on either or both regardless of their sex.

Question 10

Androgynous vs non androgenous individuals? (examples)

Answer 10

AP -> May select masculine or feminine traits in different situations. For example, being assertive in a workplace and nurturing at home. Or they may equally blend both elements in a situation. For example being assertive yet empathetic whilst dealing with conflict.

NAP-> Simply conform to their expected social gender. IE NA males will not show emotions as it is not traditionally masculine.

Question 11

Bem’s positive theory on androgenous people

Answer 11

= Argues that being androgynous was positive, desirable and psychologically healthier than predominantly masculine or feminine individuals.

HOW?
- Androgynous people feel more comfortable with who they are as there are no expectations forced on how they should act.
- They do not suppress parts of themselves to fit into societies sex-role stereotypes.
- And they handle situation in flexible ways.

WHEREAS…
- Non-androgynous people feel less comfortable with who they are as there are preconceived expectations from society on how they should behave.
- They may suppress parts of themselves. For example boys may not cry / show emotion as it is traditionally feminine. Therefore, meaning they are less psychological well.

Question 12

Evidence support/challenge for Bems prediciton on androgyny

Answer 12

FOR:
1) Flaherty + Dusk
-Participants completed BSRI
- Androgynous ps -> high levels of adjustment to environment, high self esteem and emotional well being.
- Compared to individuals classified as either masculine or feminine by BSRI.
- Shows how androgynous people possess a wider range of traits / abilities that make them more adept at dealing with a wider range of situations.

AGAINST:
2) Woodhill + Samuels
- Claimed that being Androgynous doesn’t necessarily result in psychological well being.
- Found a combination of positive M&F traits (ie assertive / cooperative) resulting in high levels of psychological well being.
- Whereas negative M&F traits (ie overly aggressive/emotional) resulted in low levels of psychological well being.

THEREFORE, Bem’s claim that Androgyny itself results in psychological well being is too simplistic and whether androgynous is associated with psychological well being is more dependent on the combination of M&F traits.
(Ap could have a combination of negative female and male characteristics, but still be psychological un well)

Question 13

BSRI, what does it stand for/do

Answer 13

Bem’s Sex Role Inventory
- It is the first systematic attempt to measure the concept of androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neutral) to produce scores across two dimensions ; masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated.

Question 14

BSRI procedure

Answer 14

1974
- 50 female and 50 male judges rated 200 behavioural traits in terms of how desirable they were for m’s and f’s.
- From this, the top 20 were chosen for each gender as the ‘stereotypical masculine/feminine traits’. The BSRI also included 20 neutral traits (non gender specific).
- Individuals rated each of the 60 traits on a seven point scale using self report. This assessed the degree to which they possess each particular trait, to give an overall score in the masculinity, femininity and androgyny.

=Bem found 34% males were androgynous and 27% of females were androgynous.

1977
- BSRI revised to create 4 possible categories of person
1) Masculine: high M, low F
2) Feminine: high F, low M
3) Androgynous: high F, high M
4) Undifferentiated: low M, low F

Question 15

PROS of BSRI

Answer 15

1) High validity and reliability
= The BSRI was used to assess the gender identity of over 1000 students. The results showed correlated with the participants descriptions of their own gender identity. In a follow up study a small sample of the same students tested again a month later using the BSRI produced similar scores(high test retest validity). Suggests the findings of the BSRI are consistent overtime and internally valid which adds credibility to the concepts of androgyny.

2) Highly standardized procedure
= BSRI has the same instructions and questions, this means that it can be easily replicated across different pieces of research or can also be used across time to assess whether there are generational changes in their measures of gender. Meaning we can be confident that we Are making like for light comparisons when measuring androgyny which makes the data meaningful and useful.

Question 16

CONS of BSRI

Answer 16

1) Self report
= it is possible that it suffers from social desirability bias, meaning participants may over / under exaggerates some of the masculine or famine and traits they identify with, as they think they are / or not expected to display them. For example, a man may rank his level of assertion as high as he is aware that men are ‘supposed’ to be high when in truth his is low. This is important because it may mean that the BSRI is not able to give an accurate
measure of Androgyny due to low validity.

2) Temporal validity is low
= Borders and Hoffman -> asked undergraduates to re-categorise the 60 traits into masculine feminine and neutral. VIRTUALLY NO reliability in classification, only two traits could be reliably reclassified as male or female.
This means that the BSRI is not useful and was A product of its time and culture. Perhaps it is time for a new one up to date version to be created which reflects gender and views of the current time.

Question 17

Advantages/disadvantages of sex role stereotypes in society

Answer 17

ADV:
1) Some evidence suggests that sex-role stereotypes are learnt through social learning processes, this in turn has practical applications. This is because it implies that negative stereotypes can be addressed by reinforcing positive sex roles for both genders.
2) They act as a cognitive short cut as schema’s about expected male and female behaviours develop, helping people to understand and interpret the behaviour of others.

DIS:
1) Can contribute towards inequality in the workplace. IE if a male and female both apply for a CEO position (very stressful and time consuming), the women may be at a disadvantage due to sex-role stereotypes. They may not get he job due to the stereotype that women are emotional (so cannot deal with a lot of stress) and are the domestic nurtures for children (so have to look after kids, don’t have a lot of time). Therefore, awareness of stereotypes are needed to reduce these negative effects to prevent inequality between males and females in society.

Question 18

Chromosomes on gender related behaviour

Answer 18

Chromosomes : carry genetic information in form of genes (46 chromosomes/ 23 pairs)
- 23rd pair determines the sex
- egg carry’s X chromosomes
- sperm carry’s X or Y chromosomes

Zygote = A fertilised eukaryotic cell that forms after the union of female and male gametes.
- XX zygote -> female
- XY zygote -> male (because of SRY gene)

SRY gene : Sex Determining region Y
- carried by the Y chromosome
-Affects whether the gonads develop into testes (without SRY turns into ovaries)

Question 19

How do chromosomes and hormones interact to produce gender related behaviour ?

Answer 19

Caused difference in the brain
Masc of brain -> XY chromosomes produce and release testosterone increase the volume of areas links spatial awareness

Fem of brain -> XX chromosomes produce and release oestrogen promotes increased neural interconnections between hemispheres (less lateralised)

= Chromosomal difference (IE XX or XY) influences the production and release of testosterone and/or oestrogen which cause diff effects on brain

Question 20

eval of chromosomes

Answer 20

Pro:
Bruce/Brenda/David Reimer
- 24 months old had a surgical accident which destroyed his external genitalia.
- led to him converting into a girl
- was given therapy and socialisation but still never felt like a girl<felt more masculine.
- reconverted back to a boy once he found out truth (DAVID)

= shows how his chromosomes hardwired him to behave like his biological sex, showing support.

Issues:
-ungerneralisable (individual differences, unique)
-unreplicable

Question 21

Evaluation of hormones only

Answer 21

Pros:
1) Van goozen 1:
a) transsexuals given testosterone supplements
-> increased aggression and visuo-spatial skills/a decrease in verbal fluency
b) transsexuals given oestrogen supplements
-> decreased aggression and visuo-spatial skills/ increase in verbal fluency

2) Van leengoed:
-> injected female rates with oxytocin inhibitors (blocks oxytocin)
-> found female rates had limited maternal instincts compared to controls + once taken off inhibitors, maternal instincts returned.
-> Suggesting oxytocin is important in producing maternal behaviours and developing a bond between mother and infant. (Supports hormones affecting gender-related behaviour).

x ungen to humans

CON:
1) Tricker:
-> 43 males weekly injections of testosterone or placebo (10 weeks)
-> no difference in gender-related behaviours
-> Questions the role of hormones and whether they have an influence over our gender-related behaviour. (Challenges).

Question 22

Evaluation of hormones and chromosomes (cons)

Answer 22

1) too reductionist
-> claims a specific gene (sry) found on the Y chromosome are the sole influence on gender-related behaviour
-> chromosomes and hormones interact with other hormones and bio mechanisms in the body, much more complex.
-> it is vital to include social/environmental factors in influencing our gender-related behaviours

2) too deterministic
-> assumes gender-related behaviours are determined by our hormones and chromosomes
-> ignores free will, ie some men may choose to be more nurturing. Women may choose to be more aggressive

Question 23

Hormones on gender related behaviour

Answer 23

1) Testosterone (Males)
-> develops internal and external male genitalia (prenatally and during puberty)
-> released in males from eight weeks prenatally

-> puberty influences the development of secondary male characteristics (facial hair)
-> increases aggression and competitiveness
(as a result of hormone and chromosome differences, influences masculinity of the brain linked to spatial awareness)

2) Oestrogen (females)
-> develops internal and external female genitalia (prenatally and during puberty)
-> regulates menstrual cycle

-> puberty, levels rise, secondary female characteristics (periods)
-> increased emotionality and irritability
-> increase sensitivity and co-operation
-> fem of brain due to hormone and chromosome difference (increase interconnections between hems/less lateralised)

THEREFORE, the inference is made that males/females demonstrate these gender behvaiours, as a result of chromosome and hormonal diff.

3) Oxytocin (love hormone)
-> released in both sex when participating in amorous activities (ie kissing)
-> stimulates lactation in women (after birth) + reduces postnatal stress by reducing cortisol

-> reduced cortisol facilitates maternal instinct and helps bonding in females (why more nurturing)

Question 24

Atypical chromosome patterns

Answer 24

=A different sex chromosome pattern to the norm (something other than XX/XY)

Turner’s syndrome:
Females
- affects 1 in 2000
- 45 chromosomes> 46
- chromosome pattern : XO

Physical characteristics:
1) shorter than average
2) shield shaped chest
3) underdeveloped ovaries , lack of monthly periods (amenorrhea) and sometimes infertility
4) No/very limited breast development
others : low-set is, webbed neck, high waist to hip ratio

Psychological characteristics:
1) higher than average reading ability
2) socially immature
3) poor spatial, visual and mathematical ability

Klinefelter’s syndrome:
Males
- 1 in 660
- 47> 46 chromosomes
- pattern: XXY

Physical characteristics:
1) tall thin physique
2) small infertile testes
3) enlarged breasts (as a result of insufficient exposure to testosterone before birth/after puberty)
others: broad hips, poor muscle tone, reduced facial/body hair

Psychological characteristics:
1) lower than average reading ability, Paul language, spelling and writing skills
2) shy, low confidence, difficulty socialising, or expressing feelings
3) low energy levels

Question 25

Evaluations of Aytpical chromosome pattern research (pros)

Answer 25

1) contributes to our understanding of nature vs nurture debate in gender
- compare typical vs atypical to assess gender-related psych/beg differences.
- IE females with TS are seen to have higher verbal ability, could be conflicted that this trait is more influenced by the X chromosome. THEREFORE BIO BASIS OF BEH.

2) Research support which increases knowledge and leads to better diagnoses/treatments
a) Quigley -> females aged 5 to 12 years either given placebo or oestrogen supplement.
Oestrogen: breast dev at 8.5 yrs
Placebo: breast dev at 12yrs

b) Herlihy-> studied 87 ppl with KS.
- treated and identified young> adulthood benefits
= Indicating the usefulness of positive societal impact that research into these conditions have.

Question 26

evaluations of atypical chromosome patterns (cons)

Answer 26

1) socially sensitive research
- Negative connections made between KS/TS with negative traits and characteristics (ie social immaturity). Those with this condition may assume it will negatively affect their life affecting their well-being.
SO, any published research needs to be used with caution due to report by the media, which can negatively impact their life.

2) differences in their behaviour is only correlation not causal
- It is possible that as a result of their condition they have been treated differently which led to the difference in their behaviours rather than the genetics. For example girls with TS, are physically smaller, which could lead parents to treat them more immaturely which leads to their social immaturity.
So, Questions the usefulness of this research in understanding what causes gender related behaviours/traits.

Question 27

Kohlberg’s stages of gender development

Answer 27

= Gender related behaviour only happens once gender constancy has been achieve (last stage).
Gender Identity (2-3yrs)
-> correctly label themselves as boy/girl.
-> 3yrs correctly label others as boys/girls.
-> rely heavily on external appearances ( long hair = girl).
-> DONT understand gender is constant overtime and across situations (EG “When I grow up I will be a daddy”).

Gender Stability (3-5yrs)
-> realize gender is stable overtime. Eg if they are born a girl they will grow into a woman.
-> DONT understand that gender is fixed; still believe gender may change across situations.
For example, if a man dressed up as a woman, he is a woman, as they get confused on external appearances and gender stereotypes.

Gender Constancy (5-7yrs)
-> Realise gender is constant overtime and across situations.
-> Greater understanding of anatomical differences that are linked to gender (bio cannot change if appearance does)
-> no longer fooled by external appearances
-> They gain a sense of permanence of being a girl or a boy.

Question 28

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s cognitive explanation (research)

Answer 28

Cons:
1) Martin + Little
-measured sex-typed preferences and stereotype knowledge in preschool children.
- GI-> strong gender stereotype about appropriate beh for girls and boys
- these kids had already began to collect information about gender appropriate behaviour, even though they haven’t achieved gender constancy.

Pro:
Slaby + Frey
-pre school children some achieved GC some hadn’t
- split screen programme of a man and woman
-GC -> longer and paid more attention to same sex model
-Not achieved GC -> no preference

Question 29

gender schema theory

Answer 29

MARTIN + HALVERSON

Gender schema: An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience

• They guide a person’s understanding of their own gender + gender appropriate behaviours by helping them organise and interpret their experiences, to process new info about gender in order to choose gender-appropriate beh to exhibit themselves
  = can result in sex-role stereotypes

-> Once a child has achieved Gender Identity (around 2-3 yrs) he/she will begin to search the environment for gender related behaviour.
- schemas become more refined associating beh, traits, activities + objects w/own gender (forming in group schema) whilst identifying those of the opposite sex (outgroup).
- 8yrs -> develop an elaborate schema for both genders> just their own

-> Young children : schemas formed around stereotypes
- provides a framework that directs experience and understand ‘I am a boy so I okay with trucks’
- @6yrs = fixed and stereotypical idea on what is appropriate (misremember doesn’t fit with existing schemas)

Question 30

Similarities vs Differences between Gender Schema Theory + Kohlberg’s Theory

Answer 30

Similarities :
1) They are both COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENT theories; children’s understanding of gender increases with age (maturation)
2) gender dev is achieved by ACTIVELY structuring their learning rather than just passively observing
3) Reductionist + difficulty measuring cognitions

Differences:
1) GST focuses on schemas and memory
2) Age at which children pay attention to gender related information (K GC 5-7yrs) (GST GI 2-3yrs)

Question 31

Evaluation of Gender Schema Theory (research)

Answer 31

Pro:
Martin and Halverson
-> showed 5/6 yr olds pictures of ppl carrying out activities.
-> these activities were sometimes GENDER CONSISTENT (ie girl playing with a doll) or GENDER INCONCSISTENT (ie boy playing with a doll).
-> under 6 : more likely to recall gender consistent>gender inconsistent activities.
-> Because… they distorted the gender-inconsistent event to fit wither existing gender schema (ie by changing the gender).

Cons:
Slaby + Frey
-pre school children some achieved GC some hadn’t
- split screen programme of a man and woman
-GC -> longer and paid more attention to same sex model
-Not achieved GC -> no preference

Question 32

Criticisms with cognitive explanations (K and GST)

Answer 32

1) Cognitions are hard to measure
-> have to infer the children’s verbal responses are an accurate reflection of their cognitions.
-> kids could misinterpret the question
-> may not have the relevant vocabulary to express their true reflections on gender.
-> may want to ‘please’ researcher so use the stereotypical answers
THEREFORE , the methodological issues decrease validity.

2) Reductionist
- Gender schemas are very complex cognitive processes that are influenced by many factors. EG GST ignores not just biology but social interactions on gender schemas.
- Kohlberg overlooks bio as to what extent are transition through stages due to biology?

Question 33

Psychodynamic explanation of gender

Answer 33

Freud said unconscious mind drives gender related behaviour
- Phallic stage (3-6yrs) -> key to gender dev
- pre-phallic children -> no understanding of ‘male’ or ‘female’ + so do not categorise themselves in that way

Oedipus complex
= Boys resolve love for Mum, by identifying with father
1) Penis focus of pleasure and develop sexual feelings towards mum
2) Rival : father (in the way of them having their mother to themselves)
3) Fear : father is more powerful so have castration anxiety (father will cut off their penis if they found out about their incestuous desires)
4) Resolve conflict : boy gives up his love for his mum and begins to identify with father
5) Strong identity with father because castration anxiety is strong
6) Internalise (adopts attitudes + behaviours of their father) and develops a male identity (active and dominant)

Electra
= Girls resolve love for father by identifying with mother
1) Penis envy
2) Rival : mother (for fathers love)
3) Castrated by mother, blaming them for a lack of penis
4) Substitute penis envy for the desire to have children and identify with mother
5) Weaker identity> men as their fear of castration is stronger
6) Internalise (adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their mother) developing a female identity (quiet and submissive).

Question 34

Pros of psychodynamic explanation of gender

Answer 34

1) evidence support for Oedipus complex
- little hans case study (fear of being bitten by a horse which was interpreted as castration anxiety from father) -> as a result of incestuous feelings, once phobia disappeared Freud explained this was due to a successful resolution of the Oedipus complex.

2) accounts for why there are differences in gender roles
- boys= penis castration anxiety
- girls = penis envy
= this means each gender adheres closely to their gender due to identification and internalisation w/same sex parent, increases validity

Question 35

Cons of the psychodynamic explanation of gender

Answer 35

1) lacks scientific credibility (pseudoscientific)
- subjective methods (ie case study) to base his theory which is unfalsifiable as it was impossible to objectively test whether the unconscious conflicts (penis envy/castration anxiety) really occurred.
Decreases validity.

2) both parents must be present for a successful resolution of conflicts
- BOS + SANDFORT -> children from lesbian families did not differ in strength of their gender identity. Questions validity.

3) androcentric
- focused on Oedipus>electra (less important)
- gender dev for females may be less informative>men’s due to bias
- questioning Freud’s approach as a strong exp for gender dev for both sexes.

Question 36

SLT as applied to gender development

Answer 36

= emphasizes the role that socialization plays in our behavior and states that behavior, including our learning of gender rules, is learnt by observing others.

ATTENTION: We pay attention to role models in our environment (eg parents, siblings) engaging in gender appropriate behaviors(eg boys playing football).

RETENTION: We remember information about their actions and their consequences
-> vicarious reinforcement : a boy may observe other boys receiving reinforcement from other male peers for playing football, such as inclusion in friendships
-> vicarious punishment : a boy being excluded by other boys for playing hopscotch with the girls.
= vicariously reinforced by the actions/consequences which influences motivation.

MOTIVATION: Become motivated to imitate gender appropriate behs as they were reinforced>punished. Also affected by level of identification with model (same sex).

MOTOR REPRODUCTION SKILLS: If the believe they are capable of imitating the beh they they are more inclined to imitate (eg boys may feel they have the skill set to play football but not braid hair).

Question 37

Pro of SLT as applied to gender

Answer 37

1) Cultural differences and gender appropriate behaviors support the claims that gender is socialized. This is because across different cultures that are different norms in relation to gender development, therefore children are exposed to different models which results in different gender behaviors.
2) Practical application to reduce and address gender rule stereotypes. Learned that it must also be possible to reverse them and present more equality and alternative models for children to observe and imitate, this will work to breakdown establish gender stereotypes.

And
1) Smith + Llyod
= Supports the claim that sex-role stereotypes and gender development is socialized through reinforcements and observations of parents. Found that a baby perceived by adults to be a boy was given more physical stimulation and offered male toys compared to those perceived girls who were played with more gently and offered cuddly toys.

2) Williams
= Suggests that children model gender stereotypical behaviors by media models through observing TV channels.
-‘Notel’ -> NO TV CHANNELS
-‘Unitel’ -> ONE CHANNEL
- ‘Multitel’ -> MULTIPLE CHANNELS
= All three towns studied before + after TV introduced to Notel.
FOUND ->after 2 yrs Notel showed increased sex-typed views>before.

3) Furnham + Farragher
= influence of the media on gender development as they studied TV adverts where males were portrayed as powerful whereas females were portrayed as domestic. Suggests that exposure to these media role models is perpetuating gender roles in society via the process of SLT.

Question 38

Cons of SLT as applied to gender

Answer 38

1) Overlooks the role of biology and gender differences. Ingalhalika showed there were real biological gender differences which can account for our sexual differences. For example female brains show greater interconnections between hemispheres, which results in better multi tasking, whereas male brain showed intense activity within certain regions such as the cerebellum, responsible for coordinating motor skills.

2) Barry
= More similarities than differences across cultures in gender roles
-> Nurturing was found to be a consistently female trait, where our self reliance was found to be a consistently male trait. Gender is not a social construct, but more likely to have a biological evolutionary basis

Question 39

SLT as applied to gender dev: influence of MEDIA

Answer 39

ATTENTION: Children watch TV shows they pay attention to media role models, such as celebrities, who engage in gender appropriate behaviors (such as famous footballers playing football)

RETENTION: They remember information about the model’s actions and the models consequences, such as observing footballers receiving reinforcement from fans and receiving admiration for their skills. This acts as a vicarious reinforcement for the observer.

MOTIVATION: This influences the motivation to imitate gender appropriate behaviors due to the positive reinforcement. This is also affect by their level of identification (same sex).

MOTOR REPRODUCTION: The motivation to imitate also relates to the perception of their motor reproduction skills; if they believe they are capable of imitating the gender appropriate behavior they are more inclined to imitate it (eg Boys may feel they have the skill set to copy their football hero and so play football

Question 40

SLT as applied to gender dev: influence of CULTURE

Answer 40

= There are different gender rules across cultures the SLT can be used to explain how gender development is influenced by culture

ATTENTION: children pay attention to role models within their culture (eg important people in our society who we look up to) engaging in their gender appropriate behaviors.

RETENTION: They remember the models actions and consequences (eg cultural models receiving reinforcement from others in society by receiving praise / recognition. This act as vicarious reinforcement for the observer.

MOTIVATION: This influences the observers motivation to Imitate gender appropriate behaviors as they saw them reinforced. Also affected by identification (same sex).

MOTOR REPRODUCTION SKILLS: If they believe they are capable of imitating the gender appropriate behavior they are more inclined to imitate.

Question 41

Research evidence FOR the influence of culture on gender dev (SLT)

Answer 41

1) Mead
= Conducted an in depth participant observation of three tribes finding differences in gender roles
a) Arapesh -> m + f = feminine beh (taking care of kids, unagg)
b) Mundugumor -> m + f = masculine beh (agg + dom)
c) Tchambuli -> m + f = opposite gender roles (ie men nurturing/women dominant)
= Suggestion rules are not directly affect by biology and that cultural norms and influences have an effect on gender development.

2) La Fromboise
= Interviewed and observed North American tribes who identified the females as those who were often highly aggressive warriors. This suggestion the rules are culturally determined.

Question 42

culturally specific vs universal

Answer 42

culturally specific -> found in some places, not others; suggests gender is nurture
universal -> found everywhere; suggests gender is nature

Question 43

Pros + Con of media SLT

Answer 43

1) evidence support WILLIAMS
(Notel/Unitel/Multitel) Just after 2 years of TV being introduced to NOTEL children had an increased sex typed views/more stereotyped than the others. Shows ho the media influences gender appropriate behaviour by SLT.

2) Furnham and Farragher
= Tv adverts
- men : autonomous roles in professional settings
- women : familial roles in domestic settings
= Therefore, exposure to media role models is perpetuating gender roles in society by the social learning theory.

3) RL application
= can counter stereotypes in society

con: correlational research
= Do media models course stereotypical behaviours or the other factors increase this likelihood? (Eg family size in natural exp of Williams)

Question 44

Cons of Culture SLT

Answer 44

1) Barry
= Found more similarities than differences, suggesting gender roles are more universal. For example, nurturing was predominantly a female trait, whereas self-reliance was predominantly male. Therefore gender is not a social construct as it is more biologically evolutionary determined.
2) Interactionism
= Masculine and feminine traits are becoming more similar due to globalisation and that traditional gender concepts are less relevant. This suggestion that gender = bio. But SLT suggest otherwise.
Therefore, an interactionist view, combining both, is better.

3) Meads methodology (4)

1) demand characteristics due to overt observation
= Her presence within the tribes may have caused an impact that resulted in demand characteristic.

2) Ethnocentric bias
= She exaggerated the difference and characteristics of each gender. She compared the cultures negatively so hers seemed better (western>). She did find that males were more aggressive, but this was not reported. (Researcher bias).

3) Observer bias
= She may have chosen to acknowledge certain behaviours rather than others. She was also too involved with the tribes which meant she was too subjective. She may have formed opinions which weren’t objective.

4) Communication/language issues
= Studying different languages in different countries can make communication difficult. Therefore interpretation could have been wrong decreasing the validity of the research.

Question 45

Issues with meads research (that argues for culture SLT)

Answer 45

1) demand characteristics due to overt observation
= Her presence within the tribes may have caused an impact that resulted in demand characteristic.

2) Ethnocentric bias
= She exaggerated the difference and characteristics of each gender. She compared the cultures negatively so hers seemed better (western>). She did find that males were more aggressive, but this was not reported. (Researcher bias).

3) Observer bias
= She may have chosen to acknowledge certain behaviours rather than others. She was also too involved with the tribes which meant she was too subjective. She may have formed opinions which weren’t objective.

4) Communication/language issues
= Studying different languages in different countries can make communication difficult. Therefore interpretation could have been wrong decreasing the validity of the research.

Question 46

Key facts about gender dysphoria (atypical gender dev)

Answer 46

1) Recognized as a psychological disorder (on DSM 5)
2) Characterised by the individual felling that there is a mismatch between their biological sex and gender.
3) The individual finds themselves persistently identifying with the opposite gender.
4) They experience significant psychological distress /distortion (dysphoria) as a result of feeling there is a lack of consistency between their sex and gender identity.

Question 47

Biological explanation of Dysphoria : Genetics (atypical gender dev)

Answer 47

• Certain individuals are predisposed to develop GD as a result of potential inheriting specific genetic information.
• Gene mapping studies have focused on identifying genetic similarities between individuals with and without GD.

-Research using gene-mapping has indicated certain variants of the androgen receptor gene may be responsible for the condition (this gene is responsible for responding to sex hormones such as testosterone).
- EG Hare found = a corr between a variant of the androgen receptor gene + GOD in males. Therefore, indicates an underlying genetic basis

Question 48

Evaluation of the genetic exp of GD

Answer 48

PRO:
1) Heylens
= Assessed the heritability of gender dysphoria by comparing concordance rates between MZ twins.
39% -> MZ
0% -> DZ
Therefore, as MZ share 100% of their genetic info, this high concordance rate indicates there may be a genetic basis for GD.

CON
1) Heylens’ research is not 100% cr for MZ twins. It may mean that there are other similarities (perhaps social/env) that resulted in the increased cr in MZ sample> shared genetics.

2) Cannot est cause and effect
- There have been claims made about a variant of the androgen and receptor gene being the important candidate gene in the development of GD. It has not been found to be consistent in all sufferers of the condition, however. Questioning if the candidate gene causes GD or whether there even is a gene at all. Therefore lowest credibility of explanation.

Question 49

Biological explanation of Dysphoria : Brain Sex Theory (atypical gender dev)

Answer 49

= Regions of the brain are sexually dimorphic (different in males and females) in GD individuals and these differences are largely as a result of exposure to hormones prenatally (in the womb, before birth).

-These sexually dimorphic regions include the Bed nucleus of the Stria Terminalis located in hypothalamus (BSTc) = linked to emotional responses + sexual beh.
-BSTc is 40% larger in males>females
- Therefore imbalances of prenatal hormones (ie over/under exposure of testosterone) could affect masc/fem of brain.
-> This means boys could be born with a female sized BTSC making them ‘feel’ more like a woman and vice versa. (due to underproduction of testosterone!!)

Question 50

Evaluations of the Biological explanation of Dysphoria (BST)

Answer 50

PROS
1) Zhou
- Found that in 6 post-mortem individuals (who had gone under Male to Female reassignment) had a BTSc the same volume as an average female. Therefore, supporting the view that they had been born with a ‘female brain’ inside their male bodies.
2) Kruijver
- Reassessed the BTSc of the same 6 individuals (Zhou) but studied the number of neurons in this region. Found that they were the same as the avg female. Therefore, further support.

CON:
1) Inclusive Theory/ Retrospective
- The fact that the transgendered sample would have undergone hormone therapy. They argue that it was the exposure to these hormones later in life that altered their BTSc size, not being born with it that size.
- Therefore, cannot est cause and effect.

Question 51

Con of the biological exps of GD

Answer 51

REDUCTIONIST
- Assume there is one single, bio cause of GD.
- This single cause is either genetics or the size of the BTSc in the brain.
- Also, there are other factors likely to be involved (env/social) Which may have influenced the person’s perceptions of themselves and their gender identity. Instead an interactionist approach>

Question 52

The Social Explanation of GD : Psychodynamic (atypical gender dev)

Answer 52

= Freud claimed a strong gender identity as a result of successful resolution of the complexes. If the complex is not successfully resolved it can lead to an inability to identify with the same sex parent.

Ovesey + Pearson
-> GD in males results from an extreme sense of separation anxiety as a result of an emotionally or physically absent mother.
-> The boy fantasizes a symbiotic fusion with his mother (ie in his unconscious mind he becomes her), removing the danger of separation as she is always ‘consciously’ with him.
-> This results in a strong identification with mother rather than father.
-> Ultimately leading to internalization of the opposite gender which means the boy feels like a female.

Question 53

Evaluation of the Social explanation of Dysphoria : Psychodynamic

Answer 53

PROS
1) Lowry + Zucker
- boys with GD with separation anxiety (60%)
- suggests the separation anxiety may have been the basis for their symbiotic fusion with mother and GD in later life.

CONS:
1) Unscientific + Unfalsifiable
- All occur unconsciously so it is impossible to test empirically. Impossible to validate, pseudoscientific.
2) Androcentric bias
- Only explains how GD occurs in males.

3) Undermines the seriousness of the disorder
- The severe psychological discomfort of GD and the physical and psychological pain and suffering that individuals are willing to put themselves as part of gender reassignment surgery mean that it is very likely this condition can only possibly have a bio basis.
- Highly socially sensitive area of research affecting peoples lives/wellbeing. Such as complex condition - more likely to be an interaction between many influencing factors.
- Therefore, social explanations are perhaps unhelpful to suffers suggesting that if their env was diff they would not feel it.

Question 54

Social explanation of Dysphoria : Cognitive (atypical gender dev)

Answer 54

Liben + Bigler: Dual Pathway
- Extension of Gender Schema Theory ; agreed individuals, once identified with their gender, seek gender-appropriate beh.
- But their is a second PERSONAL pathway -> a person interests>gender identity. In these cases they will believe these interests are appropriate for their gender ( EG a boy who likes playing with dolls thinks that’s ok/norm).
- If this perpetuates and personal pathway becomes more dominant than in-group schema = androgyny and sometimes GD.

Question 55

Evaluation of the Social explanation of Dysphoria : Cognitive

Answer 55

CONS:
1) Little evidence
- Impossible to measure cog processes empirically. Instead, inferences are made based on peoples verbal language. Decreases validity.

2) Lacks explanation
- Provides an account of what may happen. It does not explain why children become interested in non-gendered activities to begin with - surely according to the GST they should only seek gender appropriate beh/activities from the out-set