Approaches P2

Question 1

Introspection (Wundt)

Answer 1

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions, by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
- conscious examinations of conscious experiences
- self observing of own thoughts

(e.g by using a ticking metronome)

Question 2

Wundt’s contribution to the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 2

• 1879 —>opened first lab dedicated to psychological inquiry in Leipzig Germany
• His work marks the beginning of scientific psychology>Philosophical roots
• Founding father of psychology (first psychologist)
• Idea of introspection (e.g by using a ticking metronome)
• Paved the way for the behaviourist approach and its emphasis on the importance of an empirical method in research

Question 3

Criticisms of Wundt

Answer 3

1) Highly subjective
- Self report on mental processes so thoughts were not observable (how do we know what they said happened actually occurred) meaning Wundt did not use an empirical method so Difficult to draw predictions (low predictive validity) and lack scientific rigour
2) Unscientific
- Mistakes made by flawed and naive attempts to study the mind
- B.F Skinner argued that his research was unscientific as his research was not empirical (observable) due to subjectivity

Question 4

Strengths of Wundt

Answer 4

1) Contribution to psychology as a science
- His mistakes made by the flawed and naive attempts to study the mind compared to todays Standards pave the way for the behaviourist approach
- Showed importance of empirical method of research
- BF skinners argument did not matter (that wundts work was unscientific as it was unobservable) on a large scale as they lay the foundation for psychology as a science as we know today.

2) Emphasise importance of controlled settings
- Use lab experiment to control exposure to stimuli which prevented extraneous variables affecting internal validity
- Standardised experiments in a systematic way
- Able to determine causation so validity and reliability increased this increase the scientific credibility of results and procedure

Question 5

Assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach (4)

Answer 5

-We are born a ‘blank slate’
-all behaviour is learned from experience (nurture)
-animals learn the same way
-only behaviours which are directly observable and can be scientifically measured should be studied

Question 6

What are the two types of conditioning (behaviourist)

Answer 6

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s dog, Watson and little albert)
Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner)

Question 7

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s dog)

Answer 7

Before Conditioning:
Unconditional stimulus/UCS (food) -> Unconditioned response/UCR (salivation) = unlearned
Neutral Stimulus/NS (bell) -> no response

During Conditioning: (where an association is made)
Unconditional Stimulus/UCS (food) + Neutral stimulus/NS (bell) -> Unconditioned response (salivation)

After Conditioning:
Neutral stimulus is now called the CONDITIONED STIMULUS (bell) -> Conditioned response (salivation)

Question 8

What step in conditioning is the association made? (when something you sense makes you behave in a certain way)

Answer 8

During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is paired with the neutral stimulus to create the unconditioned response

Question 9

What is the neutral stimulus called after conditioning ?

Answer 9

Conditioned stimulus which creates the conditioned response

Question 10

Classical Conditioning (Waton/Little Albert)

Answer 10

Before C:
UCS (bang) -> UCR (crying)
NS (white rat) -> no response (no crying)

During C:
UCS (bang) + NS (white rat) -> UCR (crying)

After C:
NS is now called the CS (white rat) -> CR( crying)

Question 11

Operant Conditioning + the types of reinforcement (B.F Skinner)

Answer 11

= a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement (positive/negative) and punishment

e.g the ‘Skinner Box’ with the rat/pigeon inside, activate lever would be rewarded with food, electric shock

Question 12

positive reinforcement

Answer 12

when a behaviour is rewarded which makes it more likely to reoccur (e.g gifted, attention)

Question 13

negative reinforcement

Answer 13

when a behaviour avoids/removes a negative consequence which makes the behaviour more likely to occur (doing hw to avoid a dt, taking antibiotics which may have a side effect to avoid getting ill, cleaning your room to avoid getting nagged at)

Question 14

punishment

Answer 14

a negative consequence in response to the behaviour which makes the behaviour less likely to reoccur (spanking, yelling, naughty step, detention)

Question 15

Classical Conditioning definition

Answer 15

A form of learning by association. It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together (UCS + NS). The NS eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the UCS alone.
- based on reflex responses

Question 16

Pavlov Dog Experiment explained

Answer 16

Dog would eat food = produce saliva from cheeks
Before food was being given to dog (just by observation), salivation would begin so Pavlov placed a board up in which the dog could not see the food.
Using a ticking metronome would pass through food. Every tie the dog heard the metronome it would associate it with the food, so salivation would begin.

Question 17

Criticisms of the Behaviourist Approach (DRE)

Answer 17

• Ethical issues: Although the Skinners box experiments allowed behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their subjects, it was unethical. Animals were kept in harsh, cramped conditions where they were purposeful kept below their natural weight to make them always hungry.

-Deterministic (negated free will): It sees all behaviours as conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is a sum total of our reinforcement history, thus determining our outcome over our own freewill. Thus, ignoring conscious decision making processes on behaviour.
-Reductionist: Oversimplified the learning process, they ignore human thoughts (mental processes). Therefore, suggesting that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and the private mental processes are also essential.

Question 18

Positive evaluations of behaviourist approach

Answer 18

• Based on well-controlled research: focused on observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all extraneous variable were removed: allowing cause and affect relationships tp be established. Thus suggesting behaviourists have scientific credibility.
• Real world application: Operant conditioning shown in token economy systems in prisons where they reward appropriate behaviours with tokens to exchange for privileges. Therefore, increasing the value of the behaviourist approach as it is has widespread application.

Question 19

The Social Learning Theory assumptions

Answer 19

• the same as the behaviourist approach as it assumes behaviour is learned from the environment and our experiences
• its an extension of the behaviourist approach
• it claims we learn indirectly from others by observing their behaviour and its consequences
• views cognitive processes as being important in learning too (overlooked by behaviourist)

Question 20

SLT definitions and order

Answer 20

Role models = people significant to us who we might watch
Vicarious Reinforcement = when a role model’s behaviour is positively reinforced, making the observer more likely to imitate the behaviour. (Key factor in imitation)
Imitation = where the observer copies the behaviour show by the role model
Modelling = combined process of observing and subsequently imitating a behaviour shown by a role model
Vicarious punishment = when a role models behaviour results in a negative consequence , making the observer less likely to imitate the behaviour.
Mediational Processes = internal cognitive processes which create a mental representation of the behaviour ( through Attention,Retention, Reproduction,Motivation)
Identification= when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them.

Question 21

Mediational Processes (SLT)

Answer 21

Mediational Processes = internal cognitive processes which create a mental representation of the behaviour. These include paying attention to the behaviour and its consequences, remembering the behaviour and its consequences, believing they have the require motor reproduction skills to reproduce the same behaviour, all which affect the observers motivation to perform the behaviour. (ARRM)

Question 22

Vicarious Punishment and Vicarious Reinforcement

Answer 22

Punishment = when a role models behaviour results in a negative consequence , making the observer less likely to imitate the behaviour.

Reinforcement = when a role model’s behaviour is positively reinforced, making the observer more likely to imitate the behaviour.

Question 23

Modelling (SLT)

Answer 23

combined process of observing and subsequently imitating a behaviour shown by a role model

Question 24

SLT Bandura Bobo doll research

Answer 24

Participants: 4yr olds (36girls/36 boys)

• either watched an aggressive model (adult behaving aggressively towards the doll, punching it) or a non-aggressive adult.
• children were frustrated that they could not play as they were placed in a room with toys which they could not play with
• then moved the children to a different room where there was a hammer and a doll
• behaviour observed through a one way mirror

Findings:
- children reproduced much of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviour exposed to an aggressive adult.
- boys and girls were more likely to reproduce the aggressive behaviour if their role model was the same gender (identification)
- children in non-aggressive condition exhibited virtually no aggression towards the doll.
- boys showed higher levels of aggression compared to girls

Question 25

Evaluation of SLT (pros)

Answer 25

PROS:
1) Recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning (SOFT DETERMINISM/RECIPRICOL DETERMINISM)
- The SLT states how humans and animals store information about the behaviours of others and use this to make judgments about when it is appropriate to perform these actions. This suggests that the SLT prod dies a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of Mediational processes. —-> whereas behaviourist approach neither classical/operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own.
- We are not merely influence by our external environment but we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform. Therefore, it suggest we have some free will in the way we behave, ——> contrasts to behaviourist approach as denies the possibility of us having free will.

2) Real life application
- SLT principles, such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for in real life when children learn from around them and can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real world behaviour.

Question 26

Evaluation of SLT (cons)

Answer 26

CONS:
1) Ignores Nature (biological approach)
- Although Bandura claimed that natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, the SLT states that learning is determined by the environment. This is criticised as research has showed that observational learning may be the result of mirror neurons in our brain; these allow us to e,empathise with and imitate people. Therefore, the SLT has underemphasised the rule of the biological influence.
-> boys naturally more agg in Bobo doll exp

2) Lab study
- Participant’s displayed demand characteristics due to the main purpose of the Bobo Doll was to strike it, thus the children were simply behaving i a way they thought was expected. This suggest that the results have low validity as it may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Question 27

Assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 27

• all our behaviour is governed by our internal mental processes; our thoughts and emotions
  (e.g language, memory, learning, perception, decision making)
• compares us to computers to help us understand internal mental processes (input, information processing , output)
• e.g theoretical expanation of the multi-store model of memory

Question 28

inference

Answer 28

going beyond the immediate evidence/findings of a study to make assumptions about one or more mental processes that cannot be directly observed

Question 29

schema

Answer 29

organised packages of knowledge built through experience which helps us process and interpret the world.
(new info can be added to an existing schema or we can make a new schema)

Question 30

Cohen’s 5 suggestions of ways schemas sort out perception of events (DIFCB)

Answer 30

1) distort memories to fit in with expectations
2) ignore aspects which don’t fit into the activated schema
3) make sense of an event by ‘filling in’ the missing info
4) only need to store central features (not exact)
5) use schema to make a ‘best guess’
- why humans aren’t good eye witnesses

Dicks In Fanny Cums Beautifully

Question 31

cognitive neuroscience def and aim + importance

Answer 31

The study of how biological processes and structures might influence our thought processes (cognitive and biological approach).

• aim: To relate mental processes to brain structures

= the advancement in technology of MRI and PET scans have enabled scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basic of mental processes.

Question 32

Positive evaluations of the cognitive approach

Answer 32

1) Objective, scientific methods
- Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and vigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work. + the emergence of cognitive neuroscience enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of the study. Thus the study of the mind has credible scientific basis.
2) Real world application
- Cognitive psychology has made an important contribution in the field of artificial intelligence and the development of robots which may revolutionize the future.
- Been applied to treating depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony, so has more value as has a widespread application.
3) Soft determinism
- The view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we also can exert our free will at times. Thus it is more flexible than the behaviourist approach.

Question 33

Negative evaluations of the cognitive approach

Answer 33

1) Too abstract and theoretical in nature
- It relies on inference of mental processes over direct observation of behaviour. Similarly, research studies of mental processes are carried out using artificial stimuli which may not represent everyday experiences. Thus it may lack external validity.
2) Machine reductionism
- Ignore the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information. Research has shown that human memory can be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses. This suggest the machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.

Question 34

Humanistic Approach

Answer 34

=Emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination (free will).

Person centred as…
- states that humans are self-determining (fw).
- although we are affected by both internal and external factors, we are still active agents who can determine our own development.
- we are all unique so psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
- Idiographic focuses on the individual as a means to studying human behaviour.

Question 35

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Answer 35

= shows the stages of what motivates our behaviour.
- We have a primary goal of self-actualisation which to be met must be meet a number of other deficiency needs. At the bottom is physiological needs (food and water) then safety and security followed by love and belongingness and finally self-esteem.
- A person is only able to progress once the current need in the sequence has been met.

SA: becoming what you are capable of by desiring to grow psychologically

Question 36

The theory of the 3 selves - carl rogers (humanistic)

Answer 36

Ideal self -> the person we want to be
Self concept-> the self you feel you are (similar to self esteem)
Real self -> the self you actually are

-States that for individual growth to be achieved, an individual’s self concept (how we perceive ourselves) must be broadly equivalent/ have congruence with our ideal self( how we want to be).
- If there is too big a gap between the two selves the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self worth that arise from incongruence.

Question 37

Client centred therapy (counselling) - Rogers

Answer 37

= Helps people cope with everyday living problems by closing the gap between the self-concept(self) and ideal self

• Rogers claimed that most of our problems (e.g low self esteem) arise from our childhood experiences, due to a lack of unconditioned positive regard(lack of unconditional love) from our parents.
  -Parents who use conditions of worth (I will love you if…) store up psychological problems for that child in the future.
• Thus Rogers saw to giving unconditional positive regard to clients which they had failed to receive as a child.

Question 38

Conditions of worth

Answer 38

When parents place boundaries on the love for their child (e.g “I will only love you if…””
- can be real or perceived
-not being able to meet these requirements may not lead to self-actualisation

Question 39

Unconditioned positive regard

Answer 39

the need to feel loved and accepted (by a parent for example)

= if an individual does not experience this it may prevent them from reaching self actualisation

Question 40

Assumptions of the humanistic approach

Answer 40

• every individual is unique (idiographic approach)
• free will
• people should be viewed holistically
• scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour

Question 41

Negative Evaluation of humanistic approach

Answer 41

1) Cultural bias
= Many of the ideas that are central to the humanistic approach, such as individual freedom and personal growth would be much more readily associated with countries that have more individualistic cultures (e.g USA). These concepts therefore are less applicable to collectivist cultures (e.g India). NOT a universal theory, ideas like self-actualisation are less important to collectivist cultures as they emphasize the needs of society of individuals.
2) Difficult to test scientifically as concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools but would be problematic to test experimentally as it is lacks an empirical method. This suggests the approach lacks scientific credibility due to its subjective nature which is not observable.
3) Limited real world application
= Critics state that the thoery has a loose set of abstract ideas - it is not comprehensive as it does not include all aspects. Therefore, the approach has little widespread generalisability, thus loosing value.(is behaviour better explained by theories that are more generalisable to real life/ beh app , SLT?)

Question 42

Positive evaluations of the humanistic approach

Answer 42

1) Holistic
= Does not attempt to break down behaviour into smaller components. They believe that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This means the approach may have more validity than other approaches.

2) Optimistic
= The approach is praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition. Whereas, Freud saw humans as prisoners of past experiences. In contrast, this theory sees all people as good and free to work towards their potential ideal self and control their own lives. This suggest the humanistic approach offers refreshing and optimistic alternatives to other approaches.

3) RL application
= Elliott (2002)
- meta analysis
- 86 studies
- found humanistic therapies (client centred therapy) were more effective in improving clients vs not receiving treatment So… high validity as it is proven to be successful. Furthermore, it may lead to future improvements for individuals suffering and needing psychotic treatment.

Question 43

Psychodynamic Approach def

Answer 43

A perspective that describes the different dynamics, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience (sigmund freud)

Question 44

The role of the unconscious

Answer 44

• CONSCIOUS: the ‘tip of the iceberg’ , what we are directly aware of
• PRECONSCIOUS: contains thoughts and memories which are not currently conscious awareness but we can access if desired.
• UNCONSCIOUS : unaware of but directs much of our behaviour / contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been forgotten about (using defence mechanisms) = biggest part eg parapraxes (slip of the tongue)

Question 45

Example of unconscious affecting beh: Parapraxes

Answer 45

A ‘slip of the tongue’/ an error in speech memory, or physical action that occurs due to the interference of an unconscious subdued wish or internal train of thought. = failure in repression
(e.g calling a teacher ‘mum’ instead of ‘miss’)

Question 46

Freud’s personality theory

Answer 46

• Claimed that our personality was tripartite…
  1) Id -> pleasure principle
• demands instant gratification
• selfish
• (devil on shoulder)
• present since birth
  2) Ego -> reality principle
• the mediator (peace keeper) between Id and Supergo
• develops around the age of 2 and its main job is to reduce conflict between the two personalities -> does this by using defence mechanisms
  3) Superego -> morality principle
• formed at the end of the phallic stage (around 5)
• it is our internalised sense of right and wrong
• punishes ego through guilt/ rewards with pride
• (angel on shoulder)

Question 47

Defence Mechanisms (3)

Answer 47

repression -> pushing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind (e.g flinching every time someone raises their hand but cannot recollate why)

displacement -> transferring feelings from a true force of distressing emotion onto a substitute target (e.g my boyfriend broke up with me at the same time I start arguing more with my mother)

denial -> refusal to acknowledge some aspects of reality (e.g thinking that my friend is just busy when they air my texts)

=Unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Superego and Id (reduces anxiety)

Question 48

State the psychosexual stages + development age

Answer 48

1) ORAL 0-1
2) ANAL 1-3
3) PHALLIC 3-6
4) LATENCY 6-11
5) GENITAL puberty - death (12-adulthood)

Question 49

Oral stage (psychosexual development)

Answer 49

0-1
- focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother’s breasts is the object of desire

CONSEQUENCES:
-If parents stop breast feeding too early could lead to ORAL FIXATION -> smoking, nail biting as an adult

Question 50

Anal stage (psychosexual development)

Answer 50

1-3
- focus of pleasure is the anus.
- child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces

CONSEQUENCES:
-If forced to potty train too early, may grow up to be ANAL RETENTIVE -> perfectionist and obsessive

-If never taught to potty train, may grow up to be ANAL EXPULSIVE -> thoughtless and messy

Question 51

Phallic stage (psychosexual development)

Answer 51

3-6
- focus of pleasure is the genital area
- boys develop the ‘Oedipus Complex’ which is where they have strong resentment towards their fathers as they see them as rivals for their incestuous feelings for their mother. But they have ‘castration anxiety’ from their father and so repress these incestuous feelings and identify with their father
- girls develop ‘penis envy’

CONSEQUENCES:
- Boys = Phallic personality -> narcassistic, reckless and possibly
homosexual
- Girls = inferiority complex towards men

Question 52

Latency stage (psychosexual development)

Answer 52

6-11/13
- when sexual energy is transferred into asexual activities (e.g hobbies)
- libido is suppressed
- superego strengthens and you develop healthy social and communication skills (accepted by society)

CONSEQUENCES:
- If unresolved, more likely to be hypersexual as an adult (focus on sex>anything else)

Question 53

Genital stage (psychosexual development)

Answer 53

• sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
• libido is active
  -puberty to adulthood
• exploratory stage (masturbation and sexual partners)

CONSEQUENCES:
- Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
- Suppressed desires -> perversions

12 to death

Question 54

Libido

Answer 54

sex drive

Question 55

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach (pros)

Answer 55

1) Real world application
- Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy - psychoanalysis. This was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically> physically . The therapy claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind to be dealt with.
- Psychoanalysis was also the forerunner for ‘talking therapies’ such as counselling. Therefore, the approach has value as it created a new approach to treatment.

2) Ability to explain human behaviour (holistic)
- Although bizarre, the approach had a huge influence on psychology due to explaining a wide range of phenomenas including: personality development, gender identity, abnormal behaviour and moral development.
- Also, it is significant for drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood (e.g relationships with parents) and our later development. Therefore, showing the approach had a positive impact on psychology.

Question 56

Evaluations of the psychodynamic approach (cons)

Answer 56

1) Not empirical/ testable
- Karl Popper (science philosopher) criticised the approach for not meeting scientific criterion of falsifiability. It is not observable to test, such as Freuds concepts of Id and the Oedipus Complex are said to occur at an unconscious level, thus making it impossible to test empirically. Therefore, the approach lacks scientific credibility and is considered to be pseudoscientific (not a real science).

2) Case study
- Freud’s ideas were based on subjective case studies (such as Little Hans) which makes it difficult to make a universal claim about human behaviour. Therefore suggesting the approach lacks generalisability. (what may have worked for Hans may not work for everyone - too subjective).

3) Mixed evidence on its effectiveness
- Although Freudian therapists claimed success for many clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate, even harmful, for people experiencing a more serious mental disorder (e.g schizophrenia). Therefore, suggesting Freudian therapy and theories may not apply to all mental disorders.

Question 57

Biological approach def

Answer 57

A perspective that emphasizes the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural functions.

Question 58

Neurochemistry def + examples of effects of chemical imbalance on human behaviour

Answer 58

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
(‘neural’ means brain)

• overproduction of dopamine —> schizophrenia
• low levels of serotonin —> OCD

Question 59

Use of twin studies

Answer 59

= to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis/ research the influence of genes
- achieved by concordance rates
- either monozygotic or dizygotic twins
- environment is assumed to be constant

Question 60

concordance rates def

Answer 60

the extent to which twins share the same characteristics

Question 61

Monozygotic twins (+ research that showed there is a genetic component to illness)

Answer 61

identical twins
- expected to be concordant (share 100% of same genes)
- research showed that if one identical twin had depression, there was a 46% likelihood the other twin would have/develop depression as well
- thus there is a genetic component in illness

Question 62

Dizygotic twins

Answer 62

non-identical twins
- expected to share 50% of same genes

Question 63

Genotype vs Phenotype (possesses vs expresses)

Answer 63

Geno-> the genetic material an individual possesses (e.g alleles)

Pheno -> expression of genes in observable characteristics that are influenced by both our genetic inheritance and our environment (e.g hair/eye colour, height)
= e.g one tall twin , one small twin -> small twin’s environment may have affected his phenotype (height) e.g not enough of correct minerals/ although having the potential genetic material to do so

Question 64

Evolution def

Answer 64

the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations

Question 65

Natural Selection (Charles Darwin) explained

Answer 65

= any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations to reproduce
- take place naturally (no one decides it)
- e.g long neck giraffes> short neck giraffes

Question 66

Examples of natural selection/evolution in human behaviour

Answer 66

• memory = human memory evolved because it provided advantages
• attachment - Bowlby argued that attachment to a primary caregiver is adaptive
• mental disorders = e.g OCD have a genetic bases and so psychologists argue that genes must have some adaptive advantages

Question 67

How does PKU illustrate the relationship between genotype and phenotype?

Answer 67

PKU: a rare genetic disorder that can be found in babies using a heel prick test. If left unchecked, can cause severe learning difficulties (phenotype).

PKU illustrates how children may be born with a particular genotype that predisposes them to the disorder, but that the effects can be over-ridden by an environmental intervention (being placed on a restricted diet). This demonstrates how the child’s phenotype is influenced by both nature (the gene for PKU) and nurture (the diet they are given).

Question 68

localisation of function (bio app) + examples

Answer 68

=The theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions.
e.g
- parietal lobe = somatosensory area (processes info from senses)
- back of frontal lobe = motor area/ personality charcteristics and decision making (movement)
- occipital lobe = visual area
- temporal lobe = auditory area

= how brain stuctures influence behaviour

Question 69

adaptive trait

Answer 69

A developmental pattern facilitates the survival and reproduction of its carrier in a certain succession of environments

Question 70

Sub-cortical brain regions
1) hippocampus
2) pituitary gland
3) thalamus
4) amygdala
5) hypothalamus

Answer 70

1) hip -> related to memory and spatial navigation
2) pit g -> master gland in endocrine system, regulates hormones in body
3) thal -> sensory gateway: relaying auditory, visual and somatosensory signals to cerebral cortex + motor activity and arousal
4) amy -> part of the limbic system in understanding interpreting emotions
5) hypo-> regulates autonomic bodily functions via linking the nervous system to the endocrine system

Question 71

CHANGE IN NEUROTRANSMITTER LEVLS ON BEH
increase in dopamine effects
reduced levels of serotonin effects

Answer 71

dopamine -> increased anxiety, difficulty sleeping and increased energy, increased focus for learning (DEPRESSION)

serotonin -> increased anxiety, depressive moods, aggression and impulsive behaviour (OCD)

Question 72

neurotransmitters vs hormones

Answer 72

n -> chemicals released and diffuse across the synapse + bind to receptors, which enables neurons to communicate via messages

h-> chemicals which travel via bloodstream to target organs

Question 73

Evaluations of biological approach (pro)

Answer 73

1) Real life application
= neurochemistry helped develop the production of drugs (such as antidepressants to help treat depression by increasing production of serotonin at synapses in brain).
Therefore, patients with depression can manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than remaining in hospital. Thus, because the biological approach has had a significant influence in treating mental disorders, it suggests the approach has value due to it having a widespread application.

2) Uses scientific methods of investigation
= In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the approach makes use of a range of precise and objective methods. E,g scanning techniques like fMRIs and EEGs. With advancements in technology, it makes it more possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. Therefore it is reliable as it is based on objective methods.

Question 74

Evaluations of Biological Approach (cons)

Answer 74

1) Too Deterministic
= States that all human behvaiour is caused by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control over. Issues with legal systems. Could a violent criminal really excuse their actions by claiming their behaviour was controlled by a ‘crime gene’. Therefore, the approach is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment.

2) Neurochemistry alone cannot explain all cases
= Antidepressants do not always work for everyone.
E.g Cipriani et al compared 21 antidepressant drugs with placebos altohough more effective than placebo it was only ‘mainly modest’. Therefore, challenges the value of the biological approach as it suggests that neurochemistry alone may not account for for all cases.

Question 75

self actualisation

Answer 75

becoming what you are capable of by desiring to grow psychologically

Question 76

comparison of approaches (views on development)
- psychodynamic
-cognitive
-biological
-humanistic
- behaviourist + slt

Answer 76

Psychodynamic -> Most coherent ideas on the development of children using the psychosexual stages determined by age. However, Freud suggests little development after the genital stage in teenage development.

Cognitive -> Children form increasing complex’s (via schemas) as they age in relation to their intellectual development.

Biological -> Maturation - whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status influences psychological and behaviour characteristics.

Humanistic -> Development of the ‘self’ is ongoing throughout the years. (However, childhood is particularly important including relationships with parents in terms of receiving unconditioned positive regard).

Behaviourist + SLT -> Do not offer coherent views on development but instead see learning processes as continuous, occurring at any age.

Question 77

Comparison of approaches (nature vs nurture)
-biological
-behaviourist + SLT
-psychodynamic
-humanistic
-cognitive

Answer 77

Biological -> favours nature

Behaviourist + SLT -> favours nurture as characterizes babies as ‘blank slates’ suggesting all behaviour is learnt through associations and consequences.

Psychodynamic -> Freud viewed behaviour as driven by biological instincts and saw relationships with parents as playing a vial part on influencing behaviour. (NURTURE AND NATURE)

Humanistic -> How are relationships with our friends and family affect our ability to reach self-actualization (NURTURE).

Cognitive -> Recognises that our information processing abilities and schemas are innate (natural) but they are constantly refined through experience

Question 78

Comparing approaches (reductionism vs holism )
- beh
- bio
-psycho
-cog
-SLT
-hum

Answer 78

Beh -> breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in labs ( reductionist )

Bio-> reduces human behaviour to the level of genes and neurons (reductionist)

Psycho -> reduces behaviour down to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts. HOWEVER, tripartite personality theory is holistic (HOLISTIC AND REDUCTIONIST)

Cog -> machine reductionism - ignores emotions

SLT -> complex behaviour reduced to processes, however includes cognitive processes

Human -> HOLISTIC , involves investigating each individuals aspects of their life

Question 79

Comparison of approaches ( determinism vs free will)
-beh
bio
psycho

-cog
slt

-hum

Answer 79

Hard determinism:
- beh -> all behaviour determined by environment which we are unable to control
- bio -> all behaviour determined by innate influences
- psycho -> unconscious forces drive our behaviour

Soft determinism:
- cog -> we are the ‘choosers’ of our own thoughts, yet their choices can only operate within the units of what we have experienced.
- slt -> reciprocal determinism

Freewill:
- hum -> humans have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development

Question 80

Comparison of approaches (explanation and treatment of abnormal behaviour)
-beh
-slt
-psycho
-cog
-hum
-bio

Answer 80

beh->abnormal behaviour caused by faulty learning (maladaptive - not adjusting appropriately to a situation) in the sense that destructive patterns have been reinforced.= systematic desensitisation to treat phobias

slt -> principles of modelling and observational learning used to explain how negative behaviours are learnt through dysfunctional role models.

psycho-> anxiety disorders emerge from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and overuse of defence mechanisms = psychoanalysis not useful for all as need patients who can talk and reflect on emotions

cog -> effective when combined with behaviour therapies CBT = for treating depression as aims to eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the result of maladaptive behaviour

Hum -> counselling to close gap between ideal self and self-concept to increase self-esteem (Rogers ideas)

bio -> revolutionized treatment of mental disorders through drug therapy

Question 81

Little Hans (case study) eval of Psychodynamic approach

Answer 81

= longitudinal case study on a 3-5yr old boy
- Hans had a phobia (father took him to Freud to cure him)
- 3yrs -> masturbation (mother threatened to castrate him)
- 3 1/2yrs -> resentment towards newborn sister
- Fear -> white horses biting him
- Fantasies -> giraffe/ 2 about plumbers

Findings:
Oedipus Complex
- Horses -> fear of father + castration
-> Giraffe fantasy -> desire to take mother away from father
-> plumber fantasy -> identified with father, fantasy about becoming a father

-> obsessive masturbation -> phallic stage

=Case study
- Freud’s ideas were based on subjective case studies (such as Little Hans) which makes it difficult to make a universal claim about human behaviour. Therefore suggesting the approach lacks generalisability. (what may have worked for Hans may not work for everyone - too subjective).

Question 82

Strengths of schemas

Answer 82

• schema help us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
• schema enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
• schema prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.