Gender differences in Education

Question 1

What are the trends in the Gender Gap in educational achievement?

Answer 1

Until the early 1990s boys significantly outperformed girls in all levels of education. Gender still has an impact on educational achievement today but the trend has completely reversed, and it’s girls who now outperform boys. On average girls are doing better than boys at all stages of education.

Question 2

Internal factors for the gender gap: equal oppurtunities policies

Answer 2

Feminist ideas have a major impact on the impact.
Those who run the system are now much more aware of gender issues + teachers are more sensitive to the need to avoid gender stereotyping.
the belief that boys and girls are equally capable are now part of mainstream thinking and influences education policies:
GIST (girls into science and technology) : encouraged girls to pursure careers in non-traditional areas + the introduction of the National curriculm made girls and boys study mostly the same subjects.

Question 3

What did Sue Sharpe (1994) find about Women’s changing ambitions?

Answer 3

Conducted research with a sample of WC girls in London comprehensive schools. They viewed educational success as unfeminine + had low aspirations. Marriage was the main goal.
Repeated her research in 1994 (with similar sample) found great change in priorities + girls were more aspirational.
Major change in the way girls see themselves + future.

Question 4

Internal factors for the Gender Gap: GCSE and coursework.

Answer 4

Gorard (2005) - In 1989, GCSEs (and coursework) were introduced, which girls benefit from - he believes main reason for gender gap.
Mitsos and Brown (1989) - Concludes girls more successful at coursework because they’re more conscientious and better organised; spend more time on it , take more care w/ presentation , better at meeting deadlines.

Question 5

Internal factors for the gender gap: teacher attention

Answer 5

French + French (1993) - Argue amount of attention given to girls + boys is similar.
Where boys are given more attention it is due to them attracting more reprimands (formal disapproval).

Question 6

Internal factors for the gender gap - selection and league tables:

Answer 6

Marketisation has created a more competitive climate where schools see girls as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results.
Jackson (1998) - Introduction of exam league tables gave girls more opportunities -> high-achieving girls are seen as assets whilst low-achieving boys are not. Self-fulfilling prophecy-> girls more likely to succeed as they’re picked by better quality schools.
Slee (1998) - notes that boys are less attractive to schools because they’re likely to suffer from behavioural problems and are 4 times more likely to be excluded. As a result, they’re more likely to be percieved as a ‘liability’.

Question 7

DCSF (2007): boys and literacy

Answer 7

Poorer literacy + language skills -> effects boys’ performance across many subjects.

Reason for this = parents spend less time reading to sons; mothers do most of reading so seen as ‘female activity’.

Question 8

The socialisation of boys:

Edwards and David(2000)
Burns and Bracey (2001)

Answer 8

E and D - boys mature slower than girls because primary socialisation encourages boys to be more boisterous and attention-seeking. This may lead to a lack of confidence in class.
B and B - Socialisation of boys lead to over-confidence. Surprised when they fail exams - put failure down as bad luck not lack of effort.

Question 9

The feminisation of education:

Answer 9

Sewell (2006) Argues education become ‘feminised’ - schools don’t nurture ‘masculine traits’ (competitiveness + leadership) but celebrate qualities associated with girls (methodical working + attentiveness in class).
He argues this puts boys off education.
Sewell sees coursework as a major cause of gender differences in achievement as boys do less well in coursework-based subjects as they’re generally less organised than girls.

Question 10

Shortage of primary school teachers:

Answer 10

Yougov (2007) 39% of 8-11yr old boys had no lessons with a male teacher. Yet most boys surveyed said they behaved better with a male teacher and 42% claimed it made them work harder.

Frances - Found 2/3 of 7-8 yr. olds didn’t think gender of teacher was relevant. (contradicts idea that shortage of male teachers disadvantages education for boys. FRANCIS- 2006- also challenges it believes it’s irrelevantu).

Question 11

Norman (1988)

Early Gendered socialization

Answer 11

Early age - girls + boys treated very differently

given different toys + encouraged to take part in different activities -> channels development + interest in different subjects/careers.

Question 12

Byrne (1979)

Early gendered socialization

Answer 12

Teachers expectations are gendered.

girls = quiet, passive, helpful, clean + tidy.

Boys = tough, rough, noisy.

Question 13

Murphy + Elwood (1998)

Impact of reading in gendered subject choice:

Answer 13

Argue tastes in reading influence gender subject choices.
Boys = hobby books + information texts
Girls = book about people.
Explains why boys prefer science + girls prefer English + humanities.

Question 14

Leonard (2006)

On gendered subject choice and how this differs in single-sex schools:

Answer 14

She found compared to pupils in mix schools, girls in girls’ schools much more likely to take maths + science A-level. Boys in boys’ schools more likely to take English + MFL. Girls from single-sexed schools more likely to study male-dominated subjects at uni + earn higher salaries.

Question 15

What does Connell say about verbal abuse in schooling ?

Answer 15

‘Rich vocabulary of abuse’ used by pupils to police one another’s sexual identities through negative labels.

Name-calling puts girls down + acts as form of social control to make them conform to male expectations.

Question 16

Haywood + Mac an Ghail (1996)

On teachers reinforcing gender identities

Question 17

What double standards are found? How do they reproduce gender identities?

Answer 17

Lees (1993) Boys boast about sexual exploits + conquests but label girls negatively for same behaviour. This supports a patriarchal ideology.

Question 18

Globalization and the decline in traditional male jobs

Answer 18

Mitos and brown (1998)
This decline in heavy industry/manufacturing/ engineering jobs has lead to and ‘identity crisis’ for men where they recognize they’re less likely to occupy the traditional breadwinner role.
This has a negative impact on boys motivation in school.

Question 19

What are the external/ internal factors for gender gap in education?

Answer 19

Boys and literacy 
Socialization 
Feminization of education 
Shortage of primary school teachers 
Globalization and the decline of traditional male jobs

Question 20

What following initiatives have been addressed to reduce problems of gender gap in education?

Answer 20

Scrapping coursework in most subjects.
The raising boys achievement project. (Range of teaching strategies like single sex teaching)
The dads and sons campaign: encourages fathers to be more involved with their sons education.

Question 21

How has the growth of laddish subcultures contributed to boys underachievement?

Answer 21

Epstein (1998) examined the way in which masculinity is constructed within schools. WC boys are more likely to be harassed and labelled and subjected to homophobic abuse if they appear as ‘swots’.
Being called a ‘swot’ is a threat to one’s masculinity.

Question 22

What is hegemonic masculinity?

Answer 22

Term used by Connell who argues schools reproduce it.
It’s the dominance of heterosexual masculine identity and the subordination of female and gay identities.
Feminists argue that experiences in school act as a form of self control to reproduce patriarchy.

Question 23

How does verbal abuse maintain gender identities in schools?

Answer 23

Connell (2006)
‘Rich vocabulary of abuse’ used by pupils to police sexual identities through negative labels.
Name calling puts girls down and acts as a form of social control to persuade them to conform to male expectations.
Lee (1986) girls are called ‘Slags’ if they appear sexually available but there is no equivalent for boys.

Question 24

The male gaze in schools:

Answer 24

A visual form of social control where male teachers/pupils view girls as sexual objects. Boys who don’t participate in this surveillance may be labelled ‘gay’ another form of social control.

Question 25

Female peer groups in schools

Answer 25

Archer (2010)
WC girls gain symbolic capital by performing hyper-heterosexual identity. Female peers police this identity + girls risk being called ‘tramp’ if they fail to conform.

Ringrose (2013)
WC girls faced tension between idealised feminine identity (loyalty to peer group) + sexualised identity (competing for boys).’slut shaming’ + frigid shaming.

Question 26

How are career opportunities gendered?

Answer 26

Employment is highly gendered.
‘Women’s jobs’ often involve similar work to that of housewives.
Over 1/2 of women’s employment falls within four categories: clerical, secretarial, personal services and occupations such as cleaning.
The sex-typing of occupations affects boy’s and girl’s ideas about what kind of jobs are possible or acceptable.
In turn, this effects what subjects and courses they take.
The significance of gendered subject choice is that it has major implications for the continuation of the gendered nature of the labour market.

Question 27

How is subject choice influenced by peer pressure?

Answer 27

Other boys and girls may apply pressure to an boy/girl if they disapprove of their subject choice - this negative response can be influential.
In female single-sex schools, the absence of boys means there is less pressure on girls to conform to restrictive stereotypes of what subjects they can or cannot study.

Question 28

What is the impact of feminism on education ?

Answer 28

Hehe he

Question 29

How have changes in employment impacted genders in education?

Answer 29

Try’s