Educational policies Flashcards
1870 Forster Education Act
When the state began to assume some responsibility + provided free education - wasn't compulsory until 1880. In this period, type of education children gained was reflected in their social class position and it did little to change pupils' ascribed status. MC pupils followed an academic curriculum + WC pupils were equipped w/ basic numeracy + literary skills needed for routine work + values to encourage deference to authority.
1944 Butler Education Act
Limited education was highlighted in WW2 when army recruits were found illiterate. Their wastage of talent + resources made many fear that Britain's industrial performance would be threatened by such a poorly educated workforce. Therefore, the 1944 Butler Education Act was introduced to radically change the nature and structure of the education system. From 1944, education began to be shaped by the idea of meritocracy - that individuals should achieve their status in life through their own efforts and abilities, rather than it being ascribed by their class background. The act was based on the notion that every child should be given an equal chance to develop his/her talents to the full within a free system of state education. The Act introduced the tripartite system of education.
The Tripartite System (From 1944)
Where children were allocated to one of three different different types of secondary school, based on their aptitudes and abilities. The system was designed to provide separate but equal schooling and the three schools were to have parity of esteem (equal status).
Different aptitudes + abilities were to be identified by 11+ exam - used to select and allocate pupils to their appropriate school. Educationalists of the time believed that this national test was an accurate indicator of the suitability of a particular pupil for a specific school. However, a later test, the 13+ was offered to pupils if it was clear the pupil had been allocated to the ‘wrong’ school. The three types of school:
1) Secondary grammar school
pupils who passed the 11+, mainly MC pupils. offered academic curriculum and access to non-manual jobs + higher education. less than 20% of the pop attended these schools.
2)Secondary modern school
offered non-academic, ‘practical’ curriculum and access to manual work for pupils who failed 11+. Mainly WC pupils.
3)Technical schools
This type of school trains pupils for a specific line of work. Only 5% of pop. attending. Therefore, system was arguably more bipartite than tripartite.
Evaluation of the Tripartite system
Instead of promoting meritocracy and eradicating class divisions, TS was judged to be ‘socially divisive’ by reproducing class inequality. This was achieved as tow social classes were channeled into two very different types of school offering different and unequal opportunities. Critics argued it was an obstacle to equality of opportunity.
The schools didn’t have ‘parity of esteem’.
It reproduced gender inequality as required girls to gain higher marks in 11+ exam (inherently sexist).
Also led to regional inequalities as there were disparities in numbers of grammar places available in different areas.
It legitimized inequality through the ideology that ability is inborn and that it can be measured/determined in a single test.
The Comprehensive System (1965)
Due to the many criticisms, in 1965 the Labour gov. instructed LEAs to convert to a comprehensive system of secondary schooling. This aimed to overcome class divide within tripartite system + make education more meritocratic and egalitarian. The comprehensive system aimed to emphasize integration + inclusion rather than segregation and separation. The 11+ was to be abolished and all pupils within the same catchment area would attend the same mixed ability comprehensive. Although, it was left to the LEA to decide whether to ‘go comprehensive’ and not all did. Therefore, grammar-secondary modern divide still existed in many areas.
Evaluation of Comprehensive System
Functionalists argue comprehensives promote social integration by bringing children of different social classes + abilities together in one school. Researcher Ford (1969) found little evidence of social integration as a result of setting and streaming and the location of comprehensive schools drawing pupils from a particular catchment area. Functionalists see comprehensives as more meritocratic as it gives pupils a longer period to develop and show their abilities, rather than selecting pupils at age of 11. Marxists argue comprehensives are not meritocratic. Argue that they reproduce class inequality form one generation to the next through streaming and labelling. By not selecting all pupils at 11 it contributes towards 'myth of meritocracy', by making failure look like its the fault of the individua rather than the system and encourage people to believe the system is fair and just.
Marketisation
Refers to the process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state, such as education.
Marketisation has created an education market by increasing competition between schools and parentocracy. In effect, it mean that schools become more business-like.
1988 Education Reform Act
The ERA was introduced by conservative gov of Thatcher.
It included some policies encouraging marketisation such as:
National curriculum: a standardized national curriculum so schools/pupils could focus on what they viewed ‘core’ subject knowledge.
Publication of league tables and Ofsted inspection reports: rank each school according to its exam performance eg. SATS,GCSEs and A levels.
Parental choice: parents given right to send their child to the school of their choice. To facilitate this, schools produced prospectuses including comparisons of their SATs and exam results w/ national average.
Formula Funding: a new system funding was built based on enrolments.
Grant Maintained Schools: schools were encouraged to opt out of LEA control and become self-governing funded directly from gov (academies). These schools had the right to select pupils through entry exams.
Local Management of Schools: increased the powers and independence of schools. Responsibility of 85% of budget was removed from LEAs + given to head teachers/governors.
Evaluation of National curriculum
LAWTON (1989) argued it undermined local democratic control of education + independence of teaching profession by centralizing power in hands of the gov. He argued that content of NC was traditional and unimaginative in its exclusion of subjects. He claimed that it neglected important areas of learning such as political understanding, economic awareness of other cross-curricular themes.
JOHNSON (1921) he argued that the use of a single curriculum for all pupils based on a common culture didn’t encourage equality of opportunity.
MACNEIL (1990) it reflected whit Anglo-Saxon culture and excluded the contribution of minority ethnic groups.
Reflecting this NC has been accused of being ethnocentric. Eg. African, Afro-Caribbean + Asian history neglected, emphasis on benefits of British colonialism and religious specifications reflected Christian religious traditions rather than any other.
Evaluation of SATs
Critics argue SATs have turned education into rat race. They claim that frequent formal testing of children at a young age can lead to labelling and that it changes nature of education in a detrimental way.
Evaluation of LEAGUE TABLES
league tables give parents a misleading impression of quality of a school. A School’s position in league table was originally based only on crude exam data leading critics to argue that they revealed more about social class backgrounds of pupils than quality/ effectiveness of school itself.
Emphasis on league tables and presenting a ‘good’ image to parents in educational marketplace may have the effect of making it harder for poorer schools to improve as pupils go elsewhere. Therefore, poorer schools may lack resources to improve performance.
BARTLETT et al (1933) note introduction of league tables encourages schools to engage in:
cream-skimming: ‘Good’ schools can be more selective, effectively ‘choosing’ their own customers and recruiting high achieving mainly middle class - these pupils gain an advantage.
slit-shifting: ‘good’ schools avoid taking less able pupils who are likely to get poor results and damage the schools league table position.
Evaluation of FUNDING FORMULA
Popular schools gaining more funds means they can attract and afford better qualified teachers and better facilities. Their popularity allows them to be more selective ad attracts more able + ambitious (MC) pupils who can thrive.
unpopular schools lose income and find it difficult to match teacher skills and facilities of their more successful rivals .
A study of international patterns of educational inequality by the institute for public policy research (2012) found that competition-orientated education systems produce more segregation between children of different social backgrounds.
Evaluation of PARENTAL CHOICE
The Canadian Centre for Educational sociology conducted a 5 year study in Scotland and found promoting parental choice, increased competition and open enrolment proved to be a retrograde step. Emphasis on testing and competition appeared to be a move back to the tripartite system. the effect of giving parents the right to choose increased segregation between WC + MC pupils. MC pupils in a stronger position to pick school w/ good academic record - they benefitted from a more privileged intake.
BALL and GEWIRTZ (1995) - the effects of Era reforms on education for different social groups.
Conducted research between 1991-94 in 14 schools in three neighbouring LEAs. They visited 15 schools, attended meetings, examined LEA documentation and interviewed teachers/head teachers and 150 parents whose children were about to start secondary school. They found that in this new educational climate, schools were very keen to attract academically able as opposed to all pupils to boost their reputation and position in league tables. they detected a shift in emphasis away from what schools can do for pupils, to what pupils can do for schools.
Rather than improving their educational standards they became more focused on attracting ‘good’ pupils. They believe that in this new climate schools became far more concerned with their image + pupils have become like commodities sought after to promote the school rather than their own needs.
BALL + GEWIRIZ - types of parents
Identify three types of parents:
1) privileged skilled choosers - professional MC parents able to exploit new market place in education more effectively than WC parents. their own higher levels of education allowed them to us their cultural and economic capital to ensure their children go to the school of their choice. They found that MC parents possessed knowledge and capital to understand and compare schools in league tables, know how to access school inspection report, afford transport costs/ move closer to ‘best’ schools and make appointments with head teachers, multiple applications and make appeals if refused a place at their chosen school.
2) disconnected- local choosers - WC parents whose choices were restricted by their lack of cultural capital (less confident in knowledge of school and the admissions procedures and less able to manipulate system to own advantage) and economic capital (limited funds meant nearest school was often the only realistic option).
3) Semi-skilled choosers - Also mainly working class yet were more ambitious for their children. However, they too lacked cultural capital and found it difficult to make sense of education market often having to rely on other peoples opinions about schools. They were often frustrated w/ their inability to get their children into schools they wanted.
BALL + GEWIRIZ concluded that measure introduced as a result of ERA (designed to make education more market-orientated) served to make education less egalitarian + produced a more socially differentiated + divisive system.
