gender differences in achievement

Question 1

Gender gap

Answer 1

In key stages 1-3, girls do better then boys, in english. At GCSE, gender gap is at 10 percentage points. At AS and A-level, girls are more likely to sit, pass and get higher grades, gap is much narrower than GCSE.

Question 2

External factors: the impact of feminism

Answer 2

Since 1960s, feminist movement has challenged traditional stereotypes. Success in women’s rights, opportunities through changes in law. Affects girls’ self-image and ambitions and ambitions. One example is from McRobbie: girls magazine in 1970- importance of marriage, now it is independance.

Question 3

External factors: changes in the family

Answer 3

Since 1970s- increase in divorce rate and lone-parent families, increase in cohabitation, smaller families. Affects girls attitudes to education- new female adult breadwinner role model.

Question 4

External factors: changes in women’s employment

Answer 4

1970 Equal Pay Act, 1975 Sex Discrimination Act. Since 1975, pay gap has halved from 30% to 15%. Proportion of women in employment has risen by 53% to 67% (1971-2013). Women are breaking through ‘glass ceiling’. Future is seen in paid work, not as housewives.

Question 5

‘Glass ceiling’

Answer 5

Invisible barrier that keeps women out of high-level professional and managerial jobs.

Question 6

External factors: girls changing ambitions (Sharpe) interviews

Answer 6

Sharpe interviews- in 1974, girls had low aspirations, educational success was unfeminine, ambitious=unattractive, priorities were love, husband and family. In 1990s, priorities were to have a career and support themselves, independent.

Question 7

External factors: girls changing ambitions (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim) w/ individualism

Answer 7

Links this to individualism in modern society, independence is valued much more, a career in a women’s life promises recognition and economic self-sufficiency.

Question 8

External factors: girls changing ambitions and class (Reay)

Answer 8

Some wc girls continue to have gender-stereotyped aspirations (marriage and children). Reay argues this reflects the reality of the girls class position, their limited aspirations reflect the limited job opportunities available. A traditional gender identity is attainable and offers source of status.

Question 9

External factors: girls changing ambitions and class (Biggart)

Answer 9

Wc girls see motherhood as only viable option, see less point in achieving in education. In fullers study most were not interested in school and wanted low-level jobs.

Question 10

Internal factors: equal opportunities policies (Boaler)

Answer 10

Policymakers are more aware of gender issues. Policies like GIST and WISE, encourage girls to persue careers in non-traditional areas. Introduction of national curriculum (1988). Boaler states this has removed barriers and made it more meritocratic ; equal opportunities.

Question 11

Internal factors: positive role models

Answer 11

Increase in proportion of female teachers and heads, women in senior positions acting as role models.

Question 12

Internal factors: GCSE and coursework (Gorard) + (Mitsos and Browne)

Answer 12

Gender gap in achievement is a product of a changed system of assessment rather than more general failing of boys, in 1989 (Gorard). M and B say girls do better in coursework because, they spend more time on work, take more case, better at meeting deadlines and bring right equipment. As well as greater use of oral exams, girls have better language skills (early gender role socialization)

Question 13

Internal factors: GCSE and coursework criticism (Elwood)

Answer 13

Coursework has had some influence, but is unlikely to be only cause of gender gap, exams have more influence on final grade.

Question 14

Internal factors: teacher attention

Answer 14

Boys received more attention because they attracted more reprimands, disciplined more harshly and felt picked on. Boys dominate in whole-class discussions, girls prefer pair-work and group-work, girls take turns and listen; why teachers respond more positively= they are cooperative, lead to sfp.

Question 15

Internal factors: challenging stereotypes in the curriculum

Answer 15

Removal of gender stereotypes from textbooks, reading schemes and learning materials. Reading schemes in 1970s and 80s portrayed women as housewives and mothers. Teachers challenge stereotypes, sexist images removed= presenting girls with more positive images of what women can do.

Question 16

Internal factors: selection and league tables (Jackson) + (Slee)

Answer 16

Marketisation polices created a more competitive climate. Exam league tables have improved opportunities for girls, high-achieving girls are attractive to schools- sfp, girls are more likely to be recruited (Jackson). Boys are less attractive, more likely to suffer behavioral difficulties, seen as ‘liability students’ (Slee).

Question 17

Liberal feminist view of achievement

Answer 17

Celebrate progress made so far, further progress will be made with policies, role models and overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes, similar to functionalist view of a meritocracy.

Question 18

Radical feminist view of achievement

Answer 18

More critical view, recognize girls are achieving more, system remains patriarchal because of sexual harassment of girls in school, education still limits girls subject choices and career options, male teachers are still more likely to be head and women are under-represented in many areas of the curriculum, contribution to history is largely ignored.

Question 19

Identity, class and girls achievement: symbolic capital (Archer et al)

Answer 19

Conflict between wc girls feminine identities and values of school. Girls performing their identity, helps them gain symbolic capital, clashes with school, therefore they cant gain economic or educational capital (Bourdieu)

Question 20

Identity, class and girls achievement: symbolic capital methods (Archer et al)

Answer 20

Hyper-heterosexual feminine identities, constructing desirable and glamorous identities, spending money on appearance, comes to conflict with school (symbolic violence). Having a boyfriend, lowered girls aspirations, losing interest. Being ‘loud’, questioning teachers authority. Wc girls are faced with dilemma of gaining symbolic capital or educational capital.

Question 21

Identity, class and girls achievement: successful wc girls (Evans) study of wc sixth form girls

Answer 21

Wc girls wanted to go to uni but not for themselves but their families, girls motivation reflects wc feminine identity, living at home is due to costs and also part of their identity: a wc habitus, a close-knit neighborhood. Excludes them from elite uni and limit on success.

Question 22

Boys and achievement: boys and literacy

Answer 22

Boys have poorer literacy and language skills, parents spend less time reading to their sons. Boys leisure pursuits, football, do little to develop language and communication skills. Girls have a ‘bedroom culture’.

Question 23

Boys and achievement: globalization and decline of traditional mens jobs

Answer 23

Significant decline in heavy industries, since 1980s. Result of globalization of the economy, manufacturing has relocated. These sectors of economy mainly employed men, decline in jobs has led to ‘identity crisis’. Boys believe they have little prospect for proper job. Unlikely disappearance of jobs would have such impact on boys motivation to obtain qualifications, as they are low-level qualification jobs.

Question 24

Boys and achievement: feminisation of education (Sewell)

Answer 24

Schools do not nurture ‘masculine’ traits such as competitiveness and leadership, they celebrate qualities more closely associated with girls, methodical working and attentiveness. Coursework is major cause, some coursework should be replaced with final exams and greater emphasis on outdoor adventure in curriculum.

Question 25

Boys and achievement: shortage of male primary school teachers

Answer 25

Lack of male role models at home and school, large numbers of boys are being brought up in 1.5 million female-headed lone parent families. Only 14% of primary school teachers are male, 39% of 8-11 year old boys have no lessons whatsoever with a male teacher, 42% of boys said they work harder with a male teacher. Some say it is because of feminised school, female teachers are unable to control boys behavior.

Question 26

Boys and achievement: are more male teachers really needed? (Francis)

Answer 26

About 2/3 of 7-8 year old’s said gender of teachers does not matter.

Question 27

Boys and achievement: are more male teachers really needed (Read)

Answer 27

Studied type of language teachers use to express criticism and disapproval. A disciplinarian discourse (male)- teachers authority is made explicit and visible, through shouting. Liberal discourse (female)- teachers authority is implicit and invisible, ‘pseudo-adultification’, teacher speaks to pupil as if they were an adult and expects them to be kind and respectful. Most teachers use dd- primary school has become feminised and female teachers also use dd, can provide the same as male teachers.

Question 28

Boys and achievement: ‘laddish’ subcultures

Answer 28

Wc boys are likely to be harassed, subjected to homophobic verbal abuse. supports Francis, boys are more concerned of being labelled than girls. Wc culture is equated with being tough and doing manual work, extension schoolwork is inferior, rejecting schoolwork to avoid being called ‘gay’. With girls moving into masculine areas, boys become increasingly laddish to be non-feminine.

Question 29

Boys and achievement: moral panic (Ringrose)

Answer 29

Policies to promote girls are no longer needed, contributed to moral panic of ‘failing boys’, a fear that underachievement wc boys grow up to become dangerous unemployable underclass. By narrowing it down to just boys, ignores wc and minority ethnic pupils, ignores other problems faced by girls in school. Osler states focusing on the decline of boys disengagement, ignores girls.

Question 30

Gender, class and ethnicity

Answer 30

Boys are still achieving more than they did in the past. Gap between boys and girls achievement is smaller than class and ethnicity. Extent to which gender influences achievement varies on pupils class and ethnic background. Take interplay of class, gender and ethnicity into account (Connolly), certain combinations have more effect than others.

Question 31

Gender and subject choice: national curriculum options

Answer 31

When choice, girls and boys choose differently, girls tend to choose food technology and boys choose graphic and resistant materials for design and technology.

Question 32

Gender and subject choice: AS and A level

Answer 32

Boys choose math and physics, girls choose sociology, english and languages, these differences are mirrored at uni. Patterns aren’t new, girls have been stubbornly consistent for about 20% of them doing physics for the over 20 years. Questions effectiveness of policies like GIST and WISE.

Question 33

Explanation of gender differences in subject choice: gender role socialisation

Answer 33

Early socialisation forms gender identity (Norman and clothing). As well as schools, treating genders accordingly. Boys and girls develop different tastes in reading (Murphy and Elwood)- boys read info and girls read stories= subject choices.

Question 34

Explanation of gender differences in subject choice: gender role socialisation and gender domains (Browne and Ross)

Answer 34

Childhood beliefs on gender domains is shaped by early experiences. Tasks and activities that boys and girls see as their own gender territory. Children are more confident when engaging in tasks in their gender domain. (Murphy), boys and girls focus on different details when doing a task: emotions and physical concept.

Question 35

Explanation of gender differences in subject choice: gendered subject images

Answer 35

Subjects are seen as boys’ or girls’ subjects. Kelly argues science is seen as boys because, science teachers are more men, examples teachers use are on boys and boys dominate the laboratory. Colley argues computer studies is a boy subject because of working with machines, and the way its taught (not group-work).

Question 36

Explanation of gender differences in subject choice: gendered subject images and single-sex schooling (Leonard)

Answer 36

Pupils who attend single-sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images and make less traditional subject choice. Girls in girls schools were more likely to take maths and science A levels, boys in boys schools were more likely to take English and languages. Supported by institute of Physics study.

Question 37

Explanation of gender differences in subject choice: gender identity and peer pressure

Answer 37

Boys opt out of music and dance because such activities fall outside gender domain. (Paechter) pupils see sport as mainly male gender domain, girls who are ‘sporty’, contradict with female stereotype. Study of American college students (Dewar) male students would call girls ‘lesbian’ or ‘butch’ for being interested in sport, may be true for science. Explains single-sex schooling differences.

Question 38

Explanation of gender differences in subject choice: gendered career opportunities

Answer 38

Employment is highly gendered jobs. Women’s is childcare or nursing, women’s range of occupations is narrowed (clerical, secretarial, personal service and cleaning). Effects ideas of what job is acceptable, explains subject choice. Works alongside vocational courses.

Question 39

Pupils sexual and gender identities: double standards (Lees)

Answer 39

Double standard between boys and girls of sexual morality, boys boast about sexual exploits, but a girl is called a ‘slag’, for not having a steady boyfriend or the way she dresses and speaks. Sexual conquest is approved of and given statues by male peers. Patriarchal ideology (feminists). Seen as a form of social control.

Question 40

Pupils sexual and gender identities: verbal abuse

Answer 40

A rich vocabulary of abuse is a way in which dominant gender identities are reinforced. Boys name calling girls (Lees), name-calling to maintain male power (Paechter), found boys were labelled gay for simply being friendly to girls (Parker), no relation to sexual behavior, but instead reinforcing gender norms and identities.

Question 41

Pupils sexual and gender identities: the male gaze (Max an Ghaill)

Answer 41

The way male pupils and teachers look girls up and down, seeing them as sexual objects and making judgements on their appearance. A form of surveillance through dominant heterosexual masculinity reinforcement. Boys proving masculinity to friends- constant telling of sexual conquests.

Question 42

Pupils sexual and gender identities: male peer groups

Answer 42

Use verbal abuse to reinforce masculinity, Epstein and Willis show boys in anti-school subcultures accuse boys who want to do well as gay. Peer groups reproduce a range of different class-based masculine gender identities: wc ‘macho lads’, dismissive of other wc boys who worked hard. Mc ‘real Englishmen’ projected image of effortless achievement. Shift from wc definition of toughness to mc one based on intellectual ability, mc composition of sixth form.

Question 43

Pupils sexual and gender identities: female peer groups, policing identity (Ringrose) study + (Currie)

Answer 43

Archers theory of identity and symbolic capital. Ringrose study of 13-14 year old wc girls, being popular was crucial to identity, transition from friendship culture to relationship, they faced an idealised feminine identity or a sexualised identity. Showing loyalty to the female peer group or competiting for boys. (Currie et al) girls who are too competitive are ‘sluts’, girls who don’t compete are ‘frigid’. Shaming is a social control device of identities. A ‘boffin’ identity: educationally successful, schools ideal feminine pupil identity, lacking interest in fashion or boys. Mc female boffins respond to wc as ‘chavs’.

Question 44

Pupils sexual and gender identities: teachers and discipline

Answer 44

Teachers reinforce dominant definitions of gender, male teachers told boys off for behaving ‘like girls’ and teased for lower marks in tests, ‘like girls’ (Haywood and Mac An Ghaill). Teachers ignore boys verbal abuse and blame girls for attracting it. Male teachers have protective attitude towards female colleagues (Askew and Ross); women cannot cope alone.