educational policy and inequality

Question 1

The tripartite system (1944)

Answer 1

1944 Education Act brought tripartite system: children were selected and allocated to 1 of 3 types of secondary schools, identified by the 11+ exam; grammar schools, secondary modern schools and technical schools. Reproduced class inequality, gender inequality and legitimitated inequality, through ideology ability is inborn.

Question 2

The comprehensive school (1965)

Answer 2

Aimed to overcome class divide of tripartite system, make education more meritocratic. 11+ was abolished, it was local education authority to decided to go and many chose not to and grammar-secondary modern still thrived.

Question 3

Two roles of the comprehensives

Answer 3

Functionalists see it as fulfilling functions like social integration (bringing children of diff social classes) and meritocratic selection for future work roles. Marxists see it as serving the interests of capitalism, reproducing and legitimating class inequality. However little social mixing bc of streaming (Julienne). Gives longer period to show and develop abilities =meritocratic. ‘Myth of meritocracy’ applied.

Question 4

Marketisation

Answer 4

Process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition. Has created an ‘education market’ by reducing direct state control over education and increasing competition. Since 1988 Education Reform Act, from 1997, New labour government followed similar polices and in 2010 took even further with academies and free schools. Neoliberals and New right favour marketisation.

Question 5

Parentocracy

Answer 5

Publication of league tables and Ofsted inspection, business sponsorship of schools, open enrolment, specialist schools, formula funding, competing to attract pupils, introduction of tuition fees for high education. Give more ruling to parents, which encourages diversity and raises standards.

Question 6

Reproduction of inequality

Answer 6

Ball and Whitty argue marketisation policies, such as exam league tables and funding formula create more inequalities.

Question 7

League tables and cream-skimming

Answer 7

Bartlett states league tables give schools the ability to cream-skim and silt-shift: be more selective of their customers and recruit high-achieving mc pupils as well as avoid taking less able pupils, which would damage the league table position. This applies to schools with good league table positions, those without cannot be selective and have to have wc, less able students; reproducing class inequalities.

Question 8

The funding formula

Answer 8

Popular schools get more funds and therefore can afford better-qualified teachers and better facilities. Unpopular schools lose income and find it difficult to match teacher skills and facilities of their rivals. Failure to attract more means their funding is further reduced.

Question 9

Gerwitz: parental choice

Answer 9

Study of 14 London secondary schools, differences in parents economic and cultural capital lead to class differences in choice of secondary schools. 3 types of parents: privileged-skilled choosers (professional, mc, cultural capital and economic capital), disconnected-local choosers (wc, restricted by lack of e and c capital, difficult to understand school admissions, distance and cost) and semi-skilled choosers (mainly wc, ambitious for children, lacked c capital, frustrated for lack of understanding).

Question 10

Myth of parentocracy

Answer 10

Ball argues it is a myth, that makes it appear all parents have the same freedom in choice. However, mc parents are at a better position. Makes inequality in education seem fair and inevitable.

Question 11

New labour and inequality

Answer 11

New labour government from 1997 to 2010, produced number of policies to reduce inequality: Education Action Zones, Aim Higher programme, Education Maintenance Allowances, introduction of National Literacy Strategy, city academies and increased funding for state education.

Question 12

Benn and ‘New Labour paradox’

Answer 12

Contradiction between Labours policies and commitment to marketisation. Despite introducing EMA’s to encourage students to stay in education, Labour also introduced tuition fees for higher education, that may deter.

Question 13

Aim of Coalition education policy from 2010

Answer 13

To encourage ‘excellence, competition and innovation’, by freeing schools from ‘dead hand of the state’ (Prime Minister David Cameron).

Question 14

Coalition government polices from 2010: academies

Answer 14

All schools were encouraged to leave local authority control and become academies, funding was given directly to academies and given control over their curriculum. By 2012, over half of all secondary schools were converted to academy status, and some run by private educational businesses. This removed focus on reducing inequality.

Question 15

Coalition government polices from 2010: free schools

Answer 15

Funded by state, set up and run by parents, teachers, faith organizations or businesses, rather than the local authority. Claims they improve educational standards by taking control away from the state and giving power to parents. Give opportunity to create a new school if they are unhappy with the state schools in thei area.

Question 16

Allen and free schools

Answer 16

In Sweden, where 20% are free schools, they only benefit children from highly educated families, others claim free schools are socially divisive and that they lower standards. Sweden’s educational ranking has fallen since introduction.

Question 17

Fragmented centralisation

Answer 17

Fragmentation: comprehensive school is replaced by a patchwork of diverse provision, much of it involving private providers, leads to greater inequality in opportunities. Centralisation of control: rapid growth of academies has reduced role of elected local authorities in education.

Question 18

Coalition policies and inequality

Answer 18

They also introduced policies to reduce inequality: free school meals and the pupil premium. Ofsted found 2012, pupil premium was not used as it was supposed to, only 1 in 10 headteachers said it significantly changed support of pupils.

Question 19

Privatisation of education

Answer 19

Transfer of public assets, from schools to private companies. Education becomes a source of profit for capitalists, in the ‘education services industry’. Private companies are involved in ESI, building schools, careers advice etc. Large-school building projects often involve public-private partnerships: work is profitable.

Question 20

Blurring the public/private boundary

Answer 20

Many senior officials in the public sector leave to set up or work for private sector education businesses. These companies bid for contracts to provide services to schools and local authorities.

Question 21

Privatisation and globalisation of education policy

Answer 21

Exam board edexcel is owned by US educational publishing and testing giant Pearson, some Pearson GCSE exam answers are now marked in Sydney and lowa.UK’s four leading educational software companies are all owned by global multinationals (Disney, US toy companies Mattel and Hambro). Many contracts for educational services in the UK are sold on by original company to overseas companies. Some UK edu-businesses work overseas, Prospects has worked in China, Macedonia and Finland. Private companies export UK education policy to other countries.

Question 22

Cola-isation of schools

Answer 22

Private sector is also penetrating education indirectly through vending machines on school premises and development of brand loyalty through displays of logos and sponsorships. Schools are targeted by private companies because ‘schools by their nature carry enormous goodwill and can thus confer legitimacy on anything associated with them’: product endorsment. Benefits are limited.

Question 23

Beder and cola-isation (Tesco)

Answer 23

UK families spent £110,000 in Tesco supermarkets in return for a single computer in school.

Question 24

Education as a commodity

Answer 24

Privatisation is becoming the key factor in shaping educational policy. Increasingly focused on moving educational services out of the public sector controlled by the nation-state to private companies. Turned into ‘legitimate object of private profit-making’. State is losing its role as provider. Marxists also call this the ‘long march of the neoliberal revolution’.

Question 25

Policies on gender and ethnicity

Answer 25

Since 1970s, policies like GIST have been introduced to reduce gender differences. Assimilation policies in the 1960s and 70s focused on need for pupils from minority ethnic groups to assimilate into mainstream british culture, like speaking english, some argue it is not this but instead poverty or racism. Multicultural education (1980s and 90s) aimed to promote the achievements of children from minority ethnic groups by valuing all cultures in the school curriculum; self-esteem, black pupils don’t fail for low self-esteem, MCE is tokenism, New right criticises for perpetuating cultural divisions. Social inclusion of minority ethnic groups in the late 90s, to raise achievement, monitoring exam results, english as additional language programmes.