Gender Flashcards
1
Q
What is sex?
A
Refers to biological differences between men and women (e.g. differences in genitals and internal reproductive organs).
2
Q
What is gender?
A
Refers to cultural and socially constructed differences between men and women.
3
Q
What are gender roles?
A
The attitudes, interests and behaviours that members of each sex stereotypically adopt.
4
Q
What role do hormones play in gender?
A
Govern most gender development. Produced both prenatally and in adolescence. Influence the development of both genitalia and brain.
5
Q
What happens to girls exposed to high levels of testosterone in utero?
A
Can have ambiguous genitalia (swollen labia resembling penis). Usually identified as female and usually content although Berenbaum et al indicated that they are more tomboyish.
6
Q
What differences in female and male brains did Hoag identify?
A
Girls better at empathizing, boys better at spacial navigation
7
Q
What did Geschwind et al suggest about the differences between male and female brains?
A
That the difference is due to testosterone effect on the developing brain.
8
Q
What did Quadagno find about the role of testosterone in gender?
A
Found that female monkeys exposed to testosterone in Utero engaged in more rough and tumble play.
9
Q
What are androgens?
A
Male hormones, e.g. testosterone
10
Q
What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?
A
Some XY individuals (i.e. chromosomally male) have an insensitivity to androgens-so their male genitalia does not develop.
11
Q
What happened with the Batista family?
A
Four XY children raised as girls. Puberty brought on large amounts of testosterone. Male genitalia appeared and girls changed to boys. Accepted without question as a genetic abnormality in the family meant that androgen insensitivity syndrome had been experienced by other relatives before.
12
Q
What did Money claim?
A
That nurture was far more important than nature.
13
Q
What study did Reiner & Gearhart do on gender development?
A
16 genetic males with little or no penis at birth. 2 raised male; 14 female. Male stayed male; 8/14 ‘females’ reassigned themselves as male by age 16
14
Q
Why can genes and hormones not fully explain gender?
A
Genetic sex does not always match external genitalia. Hormones do not give a simple formula for establishing gender.
15
Q
Why can the biological approach to gender be deterministic?
A
A combination of genes, hormones and socialization makes the outcome for every individual very unpredictable.
16
Q
What does the evolutionary explanation argue about gender roles?
A
Argue that gender role division appeared as an adaption to the challenges faced by ancestral humans. The role differences between men and women are more a result of our biological inheritance than a result of socialization.
17
Q
How does the evolutionary approach explain division of labour in gender?
A
Ancestral women would have spent a large portion of adult life either pregnant or producing milk. Female hunting would have reduced the group’s reproductive success. Women at home could contribute by growing vegetables, making clothes etc. helping to avoid the prospect of starvation when hunting was unsucessful
18
Q
What did Kuhn and Stiner suggest about division of labour and gender?
A
Suggest that a gender division of labour is why humans (homo sapiens) survived and Neanderthals (of whom both males and females hunted) did not.
19
Q
How does the evolutionary explanation explain mate choice?
A
Men give their genetic material best chance if they mate frequency and select fertile women with apparent physical health. Women also seek healthiness but are more driven by the male’s ability to provide resources. Thus, a woman try to maximize physical attributes, and man try to show wealth/status to attract partner.
20
Q
Who developed the E-S Theory?
A
Baron-Cohen
21
Q
What is the E-S theory?
A
Women better at Empathizing (understanding other’s feelings), men better at Systematizing (understanding and building systems)
22
Q
What did Taylor et al say about gender and cognitive style?
A
Women more focused on interpersonal relationships. Stems from ancestral challenges- males would deal with threats by fighting or fleeing but women had children to protect so would be safer under threat with a group. Today women more likely to ‘tend and befriend’ at times of stress while men more likely to get defensive.
23
Q
What are the weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation?
A
- Deterministic, ignore social explanations
- Speculative, i.e. no firm factual basis.
- Tzedakis et al- there are other equally likely explanations for the disappearnace of Neaderthals.
24
Q
What did Taylor et al find in support of the evolutionary explanation?
A
Levels of oxytocin (makes people more sociable) increased in women when stressed.
25
What did Baron-Cohen suggest about the implications of evolutionary explanation?
Autism may be an extreme male brain. Excellent at systematising, not good at empathising. Autism is characterized by difficulties socially and with theory of mind (understanding what other people are thinking/feeling)
26
What did Gangestad et al suggest about the biosocial approach?
1. There are significant universals in gender behaviour (likely biological factors)
2. There are significant cultural variations in gender differences (likely social factors)
27
What did Money and Ehrhardt suggest about gender and biosocial theory?
Theory sees social labelling and differential gender treatment interacting with biological factors. Predicted that (with intersex) if a genetic male is mislabelled as female and treated as a girl before the age of three, he would acquire the genetic idnetity of a girl.
28
Who proposed the social role theory?
Eagly & Wood
29
What does the social role theory argue about gender?
Ev. theory proposes that selective pressures caused physical and psychological differences. Social role theory says these pressures only caused physical differences- these have led to sex role allocations which have created the psychological differences. SO roles cause psychological differences rather than vice versa.
30
What does the evolutionary theory state that selective pressured led to?
```
1. Physical differences:
Men- greater upper body strength, faster
Women- ability to look after children
2. Psychological differences:
men more aggressive
Women more nurturing
3. Social roles:
Men-hunter/provider
Women-domestic goddess
```
31
What does the social role theory state selective pressures led to?
To physical differences between men and women. From these social roles evolved. These resulted in psychological differences occurring.
32
What does the social role theory say about the division of labour?
Biologically based physical differences allow men and women to perform certain tasks more efficiently. However, if the society does not require such strength or offer alternative childcare options, social roles are more similar and psychological differences are reduced.
33
What does social role theory say about mate choice?
What men and women desire in a partner is not affected by the reproductive quality of certain traits but by their social roles. Women seek men who are good wage earners. Men seek women who are successful in the domestic role.
34
Who proposed the social role theory?
Eagly and Wood
35
What does the social role theory say about hormonal differences?
Suggested that hormonal differences between men and women may be the outcome of social roles and subsequent psychological differences rather than the cause. e.g. male aggressiveness results in the production of testosterone, not the other way round.
36
What is the weaknesses of the biosocial theory?
1. Lack of evidence, e.g. David Reimer showed opposite
| 2. Luxen offers a simpler alternative to social role theory explaining the reduced division of gender roles
37
What are the strengths of the biosocial theory?
Much better than the evolutionary approach for gender equality; EV. Theory suggests innate differences whereas SRT says that changes in social roles are more flexible.
38
What was the David Reimer study?
Wanted to see whether children are born gender neutral. Bruce and Brian were identical twins, Bruce's penis was accidentally burnt off. Money convinced Reimer family to raise Bruce as a girl. Reported that 'Brenda' adapted to role of female, compared to 'her' brother. Concluded gender is a social thing.
39
What is the problem with David Reimer's study?
'Brenda' later had a sex change after being generally distressed and became 'David'. Teachers reported 'her' as a tomboy and more masculine. Money also used unethical practices in the study. Cannot be generalized.
40
What is gender dysphoria?
When an individual is uncomfortable with the gender assigned at birth.
41
What is thought to be the cause of gender dysphoria?
Traditionally thought to be purely psychological but recent research has found evidence of biological causes (e.g. prenatal hormone exposure)
42
What is the rate of gender dysphoria?
Males-to-females outnumber females-to-males by about 5:1, (NHS 2012). 1 in 4000 in the UK are receiving medical help for GD>
43
What is gender identity disorder?
A psychiatric classification for people experiencing gender dysphoria. Only diagnosed when a patient doesn't have any physical intersex condition.
44
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
When XX females have high prenatal testosterone levels resulting in various degrees of external male genitalia.
45
What are the psychosocial explanations of gender dysphoria?
1. Mental illness
| 2. Mother-son relationships
46
What does the mental illness explanation say about gender dysphoria?
A number of psychologists (e.g. Coates et al) propose that GD is linked to metal illness arising from childhood trauma.
47
What did Cole et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found no greater level of psychiatric conditions in GD than in 'normal' population.
48
What did Stoller suggest about gender dysphoria?
Suggested that gender identity disorder is a result of distorted parental attitudes, e.g. overly close mother-son relationships.
49
What did Zucker et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that 64% of boys with Gender identity disorder were also disagnosed with separation anxiety disorder (only applies to MTF)
50
What are the biological explanations for gender dysphoria?
1. Mismatch between hormones and genetic sex, e.g. AIS, CAH
2. Transsexual gene
3. Environmental effects, e.g. insecticides containing oestrogen
4. Brain-sex theory of transsexualism
5. Phantom limb
51
What did Dessens et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that 95% of genetic females exposed to male hormones were content with female gender role (against biological explanations)
52
What did Hare et al find about gender dysphroia?
Identified differences in male-to-female DNA causing reduced action of testosterone.
53
What did Vreugdenhil et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that boys born to mothers exposed to dioxins displayed feminized play (supports biological explanation)
54
What is the brain-sex theory of transsexualism?
Male and female brains are different- perhaps transsexuals' brains do not match their genetic sex.
55
What did Rametti et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that female-to-male brains were more similar to males (same gender identity) than female (same biological sex). (supports brain-sex theory)
56
Why do Chung et al and HUlshoff Pol et al argue against the brain-sex theory?
Brain diffences might be effect rather than cause.
57
How is phantom limbs used to explain gender dysphoria?
People with an amputated limb still feel its presence. 2/3 Female to male trans report feeling phantom penis from childhood-including phantom erectons.
58
What did Ramachandran et al demonstrate about phantom limbs?
Demonstrated the brain's 'crosswiring' that results in this.
59
What did Ramachandran suggest about gender dysphoria?
Suggests that GD is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome.
60
What is the difficulty with explanations for gender dysphoria?
Unclear because gender dysphoria may not be one single condition (E.g. difference between Blanchard's (1985) 'homosexual transsexuals' and 'non-homosexual transsexuals' who are autogynephilic.
61
Who developed the gender constancy theory?
Kohlberg
62
What does Kohlberg's Gender constancy theory emphasize?
The role of thinking (cognition) in the process of gender development.
63
What is Kohlberg's gender constancy theory based on?
Drawn largely from Piaget's stage theory of child developmet- the way a child thinks changes and becomes more complex with biological maturation.
64
What are the stages of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
1. Stage one: Gender Labeling (2-3 years old)
2. Stage two: Gender Stability (approx 4 years)
3. Stage three: Gender consistency (Approx. age 6)
65
What is the gender labeling stage of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
Labels based on outward appearance only: "He has long hair now so must be a girl". Towards the end, children will label themselves. Like Piaget 'pre-operational' it lacks internal logic-not internally consistent.
66
What did Thompson find about gender development?
Found that 2 year olds were 76% correct in identifying their sex, 3 year olds 90% correct. Shows increasing ability to label themselves, as predicted by Kohlberg's theory.
67
What is the gender stability stage of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
Recognise that gender is consistent over time- boys become men, girls become women. Do not yet understand consistency over situations- believing men may become women if engaged in feminine activities. Under 7, children still swayed by appearance.
68
What did Slaby and Frey find about gender development?
"Were you a little girl or a boy when you were a baby?"- children didn't recognise time stability until 3-4 years old.
69
What did McConaghy find about gender development?
Children under 5 judged doll with male genitalia wearing dress to be female.
70
What is the gender consistency stage of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
Final stage. Gender is consistent across situations. This is complete gender constancy. Start to learn gender-appropriate behaviour.
71
What did Slaby and Frey find in criticism of gender constancy theory?
Consistency can emerge as young as 5. Boys develop gender consistency sooner than girls (social learning theory?- powerful males, or great punishment?)
72
What did Bem argue about gender development?
That it is genital knowledge rather than gender consistency that underlies gender development.
73
What did Bem find on gender development?
Showed children a picture of a nude female toddler and then the same child dressed in female and male clothes. 40% of 3-5 years olds capable of gender conservation. Those that were not capable of GC were then tested for genital knowledge and 77% failed the test. Bem said that it was lack of knowledge about different genitalia that led to the seeming lack of GC.
74
Why did Bem criticise gender constancy theory?
Criticised the basic methodology of the tasks; children identifying gender on the basis of appearance are showing what they have learned about the world. CLothing is a much more relevant cue in our society.
75
How does gender schema theory criticise gender constancy theory?
GST suggests that children can become gender-appropriate before gender constancy is achieved.
76
What is a schema?
A mental representation of an aspect of the world. More complex than a stereotype.
77
Who developed gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson
78
What are the key factors that distinguish gender schema theory and gender constancy theory?
1. Gender-relevant information is acquired before gender constancy
2. Go further in terms of how schemes affect later behaviour
79
When do gender-typed preferences appear according to gender schema theory?
Once a child can self-categorize as male or female.
80
What did Bauer find about gender development?
Found children as young as 25 months copied gender appropriate behaviour (Supports gender schema theory)
81
What did Bandura et al find about gender development?
Found that gender-typed preferences develop before they can self-categorise.
82
What did Zosules find about gender development?
Found that children can label gender group earlier than indicated by Kohlberg and others- by the age of 19 months.
83
What is an ingroup?
The group with which you identify. You have many ingroups. People positively evaluate their ingroup and negatively evaluate outgroups.
84
What does gender schema theory say about ingroups/outgroups and gender development?
Children motivated to be like their own group and avoid behaviours of outgroups. Actively seek information about their ingroup-i.e. to acquire ingroup schemas. GST says that children focus on ingroup schemas from an early age, before gender constancy.
85
What does gender schema theory say about the resilience of gender belief?
Gender beliefs lead children to hold very fixed gender attitudes because they ignore information that is inconsistent with their ingroup schemas.
86
What did Hoffman find about gender development?
That children with working mothers have less steretyped views on male/female roles, suggesting that children can be receptive to some gender inconsistent ideas.
87
What did Martin and Little find about gender development?
Found that children under 4 showed no signs of gender stability/constancy but did display strong male/females stereotypes (Supports GST)
88
What did Martin and Halverson find about gender development?
Found that recall in children under 6 was better when the material was gender-consistent. (and memory could be completely distorted if original didn't fit schema) (Supports GST)
89
What did Bradbard et al find about gender development?
Told 4-9 year olds that certain objects were 'boy objects' or 'girl objects' and found that interest was greater of ingroup objects and memory was also better for ingroup objects.
90
WHat have Stangor and Ruble argued about gender development?
Proposed that gender schema and gender constancy may represent different processes. Schema involve organising information, therefore affects cognitive variables e.g. memory. Constancy is largely concerned with motivation. THerefore affects things like acitivty choice. Unify GCT and GST.
91
What did Stangor and Ruble find about gender deelopment?
Tested 4-10 years old and found memory for gender-consistent pictures increased with age (supports GST), and preference for same-sex toys increased with gender constancy (supports GCT)
92
Who developed social cognitive theory?
Bandura
93
What does social cognitive theory suggest about gender?
Proposes that gender role development is the result of learning from social agents who model and reinforce these behaviours. Explains how social factors lead children to learn gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviours.
94
What are the key processes of social cognitive theory?
1. Indirect reinforcement
- Children observe behaviour and vicariously learn consequences. Results in modelling.
2. DIrect reinforcement
- Learning about both sexes but only adopting gender-specific activities
3. Direct Tuition
- Learning through explicit instruction.
95
What are the sources of social influence?
Parents, Media and Peers
96
How do parents affect gender roles according to social cognitive theory?
Differential reinforcement: Reinforce gender-appropriate but not gender-inappropriate behaviour.
97
What did Smith and Lloyd find about gender roles?
Mothers selected gender-appropriate toys and reacted more actively when a boy showed increased motor activity.
98
What did Fagot et al find about gender roles?
Showed clear link between strong parental differential reinforcement and strong gender preferences in children.
99
What is differential reinforcement?
The implemention of reinforcing only the appropriate responses (or behaviour you wish to increase) and applying extinction to all other responses.
100
How do peers affect gender roles according to social cognitive theory?
As child's social world expands, peers become important models of gender-appropriate behaviours
101
What did Perry and Bussey find about gender roles?
Film clips depicting boys/girls selecting certain fruit (gender-neutral) impacted on audience of 8-9 year olds and made children select the same fruit that their same-sex model did.
102
What did Lamb et al find about gender roles?
Showed how peers also engage in direct tuition in the form of feedback when a friend acts in a gender-appropriate manner "Don't be a sissy"
103
What did Bussey and Bandura find about gender roles?
Media portrays men and women differently;
Men-independent, assertive etc.
Women- dependent, unambitious, emotional etc.
104
What did Hodges et al find about gender roles?
Men more likely to be shown exercising control over events while women are more at the mercy of others in media.
105
What did Mcghee and Frueh find about gender roles?
Higher exposure to differential gender representations in the media linked to more stereotypical gender role conception.
106
How does media affect self-efficacy?
Seeing somebody similar to oneself raises a belief in one's abilities.
107
In what way are the effects of modelling in social cognitive theory limited?
Children only modelled same-sex behaviour when it was not counter to gender stereotypes. So effects of modelling are limited by existing stereotypes.
108
What did Martin et al ind about gender roles?
Preschool boys played with labelled 'boy's toys' even if they saw girls playing with them and didn't play with labelled 'girls' toys' even if they saw boys playing with them (direct tuition)
109
How did Hildebrandt et al criticise the affect of direct tuition on gender roles?
When instructor (parent, teacher...) does not practice what they preach the effect of direct tuition is weakened.
110
What did Langlois and Downs find about gender roles?
Fathers more openyl disapproving of sons' inappropriate gender behaviour while mothers merely reinforced gender-appropriate play (not punishing gender inappropriate behaviour) Found similiar pattern in peer reinforcement, girls more tolerant of gender-inappropriate behaviour. Likely to do with partriachy.
111
What did Maccoby argue about gender development?
Peers are the most important socialising agency of gender developement (supports social cognitive theory)
112
What did Lamb and Roopnarine argue about gender roles?
Peer behaviour doesn't create but reinforces gender stereotypes. Observed preschoolers playing, saw reinforcement in action
113
What did Charlton et al find about gender roles?
Investigated aggression (not gender) by looking at a community that previously had no TV and found no change after TV was introduced. Argued that pre-existing community values reduce effect of exposure to media.
114
WHat is culture?
The rules, customs, morals etc. that bind a group of people together. Can be individualist or collectivist.
115
What is sex?
A biological fact- whether a person is a genetic male or female.
116
What is gender?
Refers to a person's sense of who they are- their sense of maleness or femaleness.
117
What role do genes play in early gender development?
During prenatal development all individuals start out the same- a few weeks after conception both male and female embryos have external genitalia that look essentially feminine. When the foetus is about three months old, if it is to develop as a male, the testes normally produce the male hormone testosterone which causes external male genitalia to develop.
118
How do hormones influence gender development?
Influence the development of genitalia and/or affect the development of the brain, both of which influence gender behaviour.
119
What study did IMperato-McGinley et al do on gender development?
Four children in the Batista family were born with external female genitalia and raised as girls. The large amounts of testosterone produced during puberty caused their male genitalia to appear. These children were genetically XY but had not developed male genitalia because of an inherited gene that caused androgen insensitivity. They seemed to accept the change of sex without difficulty. (although a number of relatives had had similiar experiences)
120
What did Berenbaum and Bailey find on gender development?
Indicated that genetic females exposed prenatally to large doses of male hormones are often interested in male-type activities and are tomboyish, presumably because of the influence of the male hormones.
121
What did Hoag find about sex differences?
Girls generally appear to be better at social skills (such as empathising) than boys and are more talkative, less good at spatial navigation and so on.
122
What did Geschwind and Galaburda suggest about gender development?
Suggested that congnitive sex differences may be caused by the effects of testosterone levels o the developing brain.
123
What did Quadagno et al find about gender development?
Found that female monkeys who were deliberately exposed to testosterone during prenatal development later engaged in more rough and tumblr play than other females and were more aggressive.
124
What did Money propose about gender?
Proposed that gender is learned-a as long as the child is young enough they can be socialised to be a boy or girl, biological sex doesn't matter.
125
What does Money's study on David Reimer suggest?
That in some cases at least biological sex is the primary factor in one's sense of gender, as in adolescene he reverted to male and called himself David.
126
What study did Reiner and Gearhart do on genetic factors in gender development?
Studied 16 genetic males born with almost no penis. Two were raised as males and remained as males. The remaining 14 were raised as females, and of these, eight reassigned themselves as male by the age of 16. Suggests biological factors have a key role in gender development.
127
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?
Occurs when XX females have prenatally high levels of male hormones resulting in varying degrees of external male genitalia.
128
What is a real world application in the issue of biolgocail determinism and the role of genes in gender development?
Since 1968 the Olympic committee has tested the genetic sex of all athletes, and excluded all but XX females and XY males, which meant that AIS individuals couldn't compete. In 1991 there was a ruling that genetic sex would no longer determine entry to the games; individuals are now excluded from women's events only if they are obviously physically male.
129
What is the problem with research into gender development?
Much evidence comes from cases studies or small samples of abnormal individuals. Lack of generalizability. Also intersexes may be more vulnerable to social influences than 'normal' individuals, because their biological am
130
What is the environment of evolutionary adaption?
Refers to the environment to which a species I adapted and the set of selection pressures that operated at this time.
131
What are gender roles?
The different attitudes, interests and behaviours that members of each sex adopt.
132
What do evolutionary psychologists argue about gender role?
That gender role division appeared as an adaption to the challenges faced by ancestral humans in the environment of evolutionary adaption. Therefore, the role differences we observe are more a product of our biological inheritance than acquired through socialisation.
133
Why may division of labour have developed according to the evolutionary perspective?
The role division may have evolved because women would have spent their adult life either pregnant or producing milk or both; if a woman spent time hunting, this would reduce the group's reproductive success. Women could contribute to important business of providing food by growing vegetables, milling grain, making clothing and shelter etc. Also helped avoid starvation.
134
What did Kuhn and Stiner suggest about the gender division of labour?
That gender division of labour might actually explain why humans (homo sapiens_ survived, whereas the Neanderthals (homo neanderthalensis) did not. Both women and men hunted, but when this failed the groups starved.
135
What does Buss suggest about mate choice?
Men look for partners who are physically attractive whereas women are additionally interested in the resources a partner might be able to provide.
136
What is the evolutionary advantage of mate choice?
Males do well to mate as frequently as they can and select women who are more fertile and healthy. Females also seek signs of fertility and healthiness in their partner, but are more concerned to find a partner who can provide resources. Thus we expect men will seek physical attractive and women will seek to enhance their physical attractiveness; women seek a partner who is wealthy and powerful, and men advertise their status.
137
What does the E-S theory say?
That women are better at empathising whereas men are better at systematising. Baron-Cohen calls this E-S theory.
138
How does Baron-Cohen attempt to explain E-S theory?
Proposed that this gender difference may be the result of a selective pressure for males, who develop better hunting strategies, and females, who are focused on rearing children. He suggests that males who were able to systematise with greater precision would have gained an evolutionary advantage.
139
What is tend and befriend?
Women may be focused on interpersonal concerns. A female tendency to 'tend and befriend' at times of stress, whereas men are more likely to become defensive.
140
How did Taylor et al attempt to explain the tend and befriend theory?
Proposed that this may stem from the different challenges faced by men and women when dealing with stress in the EEA. Ancestral males would deal with threats by getting ready to fight of flee. IN contrast, the adaptive response for females as the primary caregiver would be to protect themselves as their young in their role as primary caregivers to children. It would also be adaptive to group together with family units.
141
What is the argument against the criticism of the evolutionary approach as determinist?
Argue that evolutionary psychologists merely suggest that genes only predispose us to behave in certain ways but this does not dictate what individuals choose to do.
142
What are the criticisms of the evolutionary explanation of gender roles?
1. Ignore social explanations and are determinist
2. Speculative
3. Other theirs for the disappearance of the Neanderthals are equally plausible, for example climate change in Europe around 30,000 BC (Tzedakis et al)
143
What study did Waynforth and Dunbar do in relation to mate choice?
The researchers used personal ads to assess what men and women were seeking and also what they were advertising, claiming that such ads are particularly interesting because they represent the writer's ideal bid in the lengthy process of mate selection. The results were as predicted- 44% of males sought a physically attractive partner, compared with 22% of women; 50% of women offered attractiveness, whereas only 34% of males did.
144
What study did Ennis et al do in support of tend and befriend?
Conducted a natural experiment. Samples levels of cortisol a week before students took exams (low stress) and immediately before the exam (high stress). IN the male participants there was a significant increase in cortisol levels, whereas in females there was a significant decrease, supporting the view that women respond tot he stress of others in a different way to men.
145
What study did Taylor et al do in support of tend and befriend?
Showed that, in women, levels of oxytocin- a hormone that reduces anxiety and makes people more sociable (tend and befriend) increased with stress.
146
What is the meat-sharing hypothesis?
When humans turned from a vegetarian diet to one that included meat, men became the hunters because of selective pressures such as using meat to attract females.
147
What did Stanford suggest about gender roles?
An outcome of humans turning from a vegetarian diet to one that included mean may be that men used meat as a means of attracting female interest (meat-sharing hypothesis).
148
What did Hill and Kaplan find about gender roles?
Studies of modern hunter-gatherer societies have found that men use meat as a means of gaining access to women.
149
What did Baron-Cohen propose about autism?
Tat autism may be an example of the extreme male brain which excels at systematising and lacks the ability to empathise. He found that autistics score high at systematising and low on empathising, i.e. they have an extreme male brain.
150
What study did Baron-Cohen do into different cognitive styles?
He developed a Systematising Quotient Questionnaire. Participants were asked to indicate how strongly they agreed or disagreed with these statements. Found males tended to be systematises and females tended to be empathisers- only about 17% of men had a female empathising brain and the same percentage of women had a male systematising brain.
151
What did Gangestad et al note that we had to consider in relation to gender?
1. There are significant universal in gender behaviour
| 2. There are significant cultural variations in gender differences.
152
What is the biosocial approach?
An approach encompasses both biological and social factors. Places more emphasis on social factors.
153
What did Money and Ehrhardt argue about gender development?
(biosocial theory). Argued that once a biological male or female is born, social labelling and differential treatment of boys and girls interact with biological factors (such as prenatal exposure to testosterone) to steer development. Essentially they argued that it is sex of rearing that is the pivotal point in gender development. Biology is likely to determine sex of rearing as a baby is sexed at birth and everything else follows from that. Predicted that if a genetic male is mislabelled as a girl and treated as a girl before the age of 3, he would acquire the gender identity of a girl.
154
What is a major criticism of talking about division of labour?
In some cultures today women are hunters, such as the Agta in the Philippines and the Aka Pygmy in Central Africa. In both of these societies animals are available close to home and therefore women can hunt accompanied by their children.
155
What is Eagly and Wood's social role theory?
Suggests that selective pressures do no cause both physical and psychological differences; they only cause physical differences, and these lead to sex role allocations which in turn create psychological sex differences. THis means that psychological sex differences are seen as the consequence of the different roles.
156
What does the evolutionary approach see social roles ass?
Growing out of biologically determined psychological differences.
157
What does social role theory say about division of labour?
That biologically-based physical differences between men and women allow them to perform certain tasks more efficiently. In societies where strength is not required for occupational roles outside the home and/or socieites where there is alternative care for children, social roles will be more similar between men and women,and psychological differences reduced.
158
How does social role theory explain mate choice?
Suggest that what men and women seek in a partner can be related to their social roles rather than to the reproductive value of certain traits (the evolutionary view). Women maximise their outcomes by selecting a man who is a good wage earner, and men maximise their outcomes by seeking a mate who is successful in the domestic role> Therefore, different social roles can explain sex differences in mate choice.
159
What does social role theory suggest about hormonal differences?
Suggested that hormonal differences between men and women may be the outcome of social roles and psychological sex differences rather than the cause.
160
What did Eagly and Wood argue about testosterone differences in gender?
Propose that testosterone is not the cause of greater male vs. female aggressiveness, but instead it is the effect of the fact that men (because of their strength) engage in more athletic and competitive events and this creates high levels of testosterone than in women.
161
What is the approach taken by Eagly and Wood to gender?
A social construction one, an approach which suggests that much of human behaviour is an invention or outcome of a particular society or culture. According to this approach, behaviours are best understood in terms of the social context in which they occur.
162
What is a significant real world advantage of the social role theory over the evolutionary approach to gender?
Social role theory is seen as good for gender equality as it has high ethical appeal because sex roles are perceived as social and therefore more flexible.
163
What study did Buss do on sex differences in human mate preferences?
Studied over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures.; Found women desired mates who were 'good financial prospects'. Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness. Men universally wanted mates who were younger than them. Both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent, kind, and dependable.
164
What study did Eagly and Wood do on mate choice?
Reexamined the data from Buss's study of 37 cultures, and suggested that the pattern of sex differences can be just as well explained by social roles. E.g. given that women generally have had less earning capacity it is no wonder tha, universally, women seek men with resources. Along with resources, men have power and dominance. Men want younger women not because of fertility but because they will be more obedient. They re-analysed the data using the gender empowerment measure to identify which cultures had greater or less gender equality. Found that when women had a higher status, and male-female division of labour was less pronounces, sex differences in mating preferences became less pronounced.
165
Why did Gangestad et al challenge Eagly and Wood's conclusion on the study of mate choice?
He conducted a further analysis of the same data, adding some additional controls, such as affluence and social structure. The finding was that gender equality was not related to sex differences, and thus they concluded that evolutionary can provide a better explanation for the joint effects of biology and culture.
166
What is the limitations of the biosocial theory?
1. Lack of evidence
| 2. Sample bias- derived from the study of abnormal individuals
167
Why does Luxen argue against the social role theory on gender?
1. Selective pressure; argues that behaviour is at least as important as physical characteristics, therefore selective pressure would act directly on behaviour to create psychological and physical sex differences.
2. Sex differences without socialisation- He points to research that has shown that v young children and even animals display sex differences in their toy preferences. Suggests that such preferences would be biological, as sex role socialisation is unlikely to have occurred in these cases.
168
What is gender identity disorder?
A psychiatric classification for people experiencing gender dysphoria. This condition is only diagnosed where a person does not have any physical intersex condition, such as AIS or CAH.
169
What did Ramachandran suggest about gender dysphoria?
That it is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome.
170
What evidence is there that gender dysphoria is related to phantom limb syndrome?
2/3 of FTM trans report the sensation of a phantom penis from childhood onwards, including phantom erections. Plus, nearly 2/3 of cis males who have a penis surgically removed experience the sensation of a phantom penis, whereas only 1/3 of MTF trans do after sex reassignment surgery, i.e. there was something wrong with their original wiring.
171
What are the psychosocial explanations of gender dysphoria?
Mental illness and mother-son relationships.
172
What study did Coates et al do on gender dysphoria?
Produced a case history of a boy who developed gender identity disorder, proposing that this was a defensive reaction to the boy's mother's depression following an abortion. The trauma occured when the boy was 3, a time in development when a child is particularly sensitive to gender issues. THey suggest that the trauma may have led to a cross-gender fantasy as a means of resolving the ensuing anxiety.
173
What did Stoller propose about gender dysphoria?
Proposed that gender identity disorder results from distorted parental attitudes. In clinical interviews with individuals diagnosed with GID Stoller observed that they displayed overly close mother-son relationships. THis would be likely to lead to greater female identificationa nd confused gender identity.
174
What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria?
1. Mismatch between hormones and genetic sex
2. Transsexual gene
3. The brain-sex theory of transsexualism
4. Environmental effects
175
What did Hare et al find about gender dysphoria?
Looked at the DNA of 112 MTF trans and found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in a cisgender sample. The effect of this abnormality is reduced action of the male sex hormone testosterone and this may have an effect on gender development in the womb (e.g. under-masculinising the brain)
176
What part of the brain has been studied in relation to the brain-sex theory of transsexualism?
The BSTc (bed nucleus of the stria terminals), which is located int he thalamus. On average, the BSTc is twice as large in straight men as in straight women and contains twice the number of neurons. THe explanation may be that the size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex.
177
What did Zhou et al and Kruijver et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that the number of neurons in the BSTc of trans women was similar to that of cis females. By contract, the number of neurons in trans males was found to be in the cis male range.
178
How may environmental effects be linked to gender dysphoria?
Environmental pollution. For example, the insecticide DDT contains oestrogens which may mean that males are prenatally exposed to unduly high levels of these female hormones causing a mismatch between genetic sex and hormone influences.
179
What is the real world application of research on gender dysphoria?
Can help give strategies for appropriate measures for intersex children. Plus, the outcome has social consequences for individuals represented by this research.
180
What is a major issue with research into gender dysphoria?
Gender dysphoria may not be one single condition. Blanchard has proposed two distinct groups in relation to trans women: 'homosexual transsexuals' who wish to change sex because they are attracted to men,, and 'non-homosexual transexuals' who wish to change sex because they are autogynephilic (sexually aroused by the thought or image of themselves as a woman). Thus, there are a number of different explanations available
181
What did Cole et al find about gender dysphoria?
Studied 435 indiviudals experiencing gender dysphoria and reported that the range of psychiatric conditions displayed was no greater than found in a 'normal' population, which suggests that gender dysphoria is generally unrelated to trauma or pathological families.
182
What did Zucker et al find about gender dysphoria?
Studied 115 boys with concerns about their gender identity and their mothers. Of the boys who were eventually diagnosed with gender identity disorder, 64% were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder, compared to only 38% of the boys whose symptoms were subclinical. This points to some kind of disordered attachment to a mother as a factor in GID, but it does only explain trans women.
183
What does Diamond dispute about gender dysphoria?
In some cases, it has been suggested that persistently dressing a young boy in girl's clothing (or vice versa) may cause transsexualism. Diamond claims however that there is no evidence to support this.
184
What did Dessens et al find about gender dysphoria?
Studied 250 genetic females with CAH who were raised as females. Despite prenatal exposure to male hormones 95% were content with their female gender role. The remaining 5% did experience gender dysphoria but generally prenatal exposure to male hormones did not show a clear relationship with dysphoria.
185
Why did Chung et al criticise brain-sex theory?
Noted that the differences in BSTc volume between men and women does not develop until adulthood, whereas most transsexuals report their feelings of gender dysphoria began in early childhood. THis suggests that the difference found in the BSTc could not be the cause of transsexualism but might perhaps be an effect.
186
What did Hulshoff Pol et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that transgender hormone therapy does influence the size of the BSTx and the individuals in the Dutch studies (that had found differences in BSTc size) had been receiving hormone therapy.
187
What did Rametti et al find about gender dysphoria?
Studied the brains of trans males before they started transgender hormone therapy. In terms of amounts of white matter in their brains, the FTM individuals had a more similar pattern to individuals who share their gender identity than those who share their biological sex.
188
What did Vreugdenhil et al find about gender dysphoria?
Reported that boys born to mothers who were exposed to dioxins (which can promote oestrogen) displayed feminised play.
189
WHat is Kohlberg's theory of gender development an example of?
The cognitive developmental approach which emphasises the role of thinking (cognition) in the process of development.
190
What is gender?
The psychological characteristics associated with being male or female.
191
What is gender identity?
An individual's perception of themselves as masculine or feminine.
192
What is sex?
Biological fact of being a man or a woman, e.g. diference in genitals at birth
193
What is sex identity?
An individual's sexual orientation, preferences, gender roles, and how they define their individual sexuality.
194
What is Kohlberg's gender constancy theory based on?
Piaget's idea that the way we think changes as we got older because of physical changes in the brain. THe brain becomes capable of increasingly complicated and abstract thinking. This means that changes in in gender thinking are solely the outcome of age-related changes in a child's cognitive capabilities and occurs ins tages.
195
What are the stages of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
Stage 1: Gender labeling
Stage 2: Gender Stability
Stage 3: Gender Consistency
196
What does conservation refer to?
Refers to the ability to understand that, despite superficial changes in appearance, basic properties of an object remain unchanged. THe ability appears around the age of 6/7.
197
When does stage 1 gender labeling occur in Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
Between the ages of two and three
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What does stage 2 gender stability occur in Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
At around the age of four
199
When does stage 3 gender consistency occur in Kohlberg's gender consistency theory?
Around the age of six
200
What is the gender labelling stage of Kolhberg's gender constancy theory?
First stage. Children label themselves and others as a boy or a girl, a man or a women. THis label is based on outward appearance only, and will change gender labels as appearance change. Towards the end of this stage children can label others and themselves. A child's way of thinking at this stage has been described by Piaget as pre-operational, i.e. it lacks internal logic.
201
What is the gender stability stage of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
CHildren recognise that gender is something that is consistent over time. Thus their gender concept is one of stability but it does not yet recognise consistency. They do not understand that gender is also consistent across situations, believing instead that males might change into females if they engage in female activities. THey lack the ability to conserve.
202
What did McConaghy find in support of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
Found that when young children were shown a line drawing of a doll where the male genitals were visible through the doll's dress children under the age of five judged the doll to be female because of its external appearance despite the contrary evidence that it was a boy.
203
What is the gender consistency theory of Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
IN the final stage of gender development, children come to realise that gender is consistent across situations. Thus they have developed full gender constancy (constant across time and situations). Only at this point does a child start to learn about gender-appropriate behaviour. Up until the stage of constancy such information is not really relevant because the child believes their gender may change.
204
What did Sandra Bem argue was at the root of gender development?
Genital knowledge rather than gender constancy
205
What study did Sandra Bem do on gender?
She showed children a picture of a toddler in the nude and then asked each child to identify the toddler's sex when dressed gender inappropriately and appropriately. SHe found that 40% of 3-5 year olds were capable of conserving gender. She then tested those children who didn't conserve gender and found that most of these )77%) also failed a genital knowledge test.
206
Why does Sandra Bem argue that the task used in her study is nonsense?
When chldren are asked to resolve a contradiction between genitals and clothing, the child goes for the cue which is most relevant in our society- we demarcate gender through hairstyle and clothing. CHildren who resolve this contradiction by identifying gender o the basis of clothing are simply showing that they have learned about our world.
207
What study did Thompson do on gender development?
Found that two year olds were 76% correct in identifying their sex, whereas three year olds were 90% correct. This shows an increasing ability to label themselves, as predicted by Kohlberg's theory.
208
What study did SLaby and Frey do on gender development?
They asked young children questions, such as 'were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby? and 'when you grow up will you be a mummy or daddy?'. The answers given by children showed that they did not recognise that these traits were stable over time until they were three of four years old, as Kohlberg predicted.
209
Why did Slaby and Frey criticise KOhlberg's theory of gender?
That found that gender consistency appeared at a younger age than Kohlberg had suggested, as young as five.
210
What did Slaby and Frey find about gender consistency?
Found that boys tended to exhibit gender consistency before girls
211
What did Huston find about gender development?
Points out that it is relatively easy to get girls to take on masculine-type activities, but the same cannot be said of boys who genrally resist.
212
How can social learning theory explain the gender difference in gender consistency?
The role models that boys identify with tend to be more powerful. Power is one factor that determines how likely a person is to identify with a role model. THerefore, girls are less likely to identify with their role models because, even though the role models are gender appropriate they are less powerful.
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What reason did Langlois and Downs use to explain gender difference in gender consistency?
Boys are more likely to be punished for gender inappropriate behaviour than girls and therefore learn appropriate gender behaviour more rapidly.
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How do the gender differences in gender consistency undermine Kohlberg's theory of gender?
It suggests Kohlberg's theory is incomplete because social learning theory principles are also involved.
215
Why did Martin and Halverson criticise Slaby and Frey's methods?
Analysed children's responses to the questions used by Slaby and Frey and judged that children were adopting a 'pretend' mode and answering the questions based on this rather than what they really thought.
216
What is a major difference between Gender Schema theory and Kohlberg's theory of gender
GST suggests that children can acquire information about gender-appropriate behaviours before gender constancy is achieved.
217
What did Durkin find about gender roles?
Found that many couples theoretically agree to sharing domestic duties but in practice this doesn't happen.
218
Who developed the gender schema theory?
MArtin and Halverson
219
HOw does gender schema theory and Kohlberg's gender constancy theory differ from the social cognitive perspective?
Both theories believe that the key to gender development is seeking to acquire information about one's own gender, as distinct from learning about gender behaviour through reinforcment and punishment, which is the social cognitive perspective.
220
What is a schema?
A mental representation of an aspect of the world. It's a cluster of related items that together represent a concept.
221
What two key factors differentiate gender schema theory from Kohlberg's gender constancy theory?
GST argue that the process of acquiring gender-relevant information happens before gender consistency/constancy is achieved. They claim that basic gender identity (gender labelling) is sufficient for a child to identify themselves as a boy/girl and take an interest in what behaviours are appropriate. Second, GST go further than Kohlberg in suggesting how acquisition of stereotypes/schema affects later behaviour, especially in terms of memory and attention.
222
Wat are the main components of gender schema theory?
1. Schemas
2. Ingroup and Outgroup Schema
3. Resilience of gender beliefs
223
How do Schemas affect gender according to gender schema theory?
Children learn schemas related to gender from their interactions with out children and adults, as well a from tv or videos. Such schema have the function of organizing and structuring other information that is presented to children. THey learn about what toys are appropriate are appropriate for each gender etc. In a sense, these gender schemas are like 'naive' theories about appropriate behaviour for each genders.
224
What is an ingroup?
Refers to the groups with which a person identifies
225
How do ingroup and outgroup schema affect gender according to gender schema theory?
ONce a child has identified with a group (boy, girl etc.) this leads them to positively evaluate their own group and negatively evaluate the outgroup. In turn, this evaluation motivates a child to be like their own group and avoid behaviours of the other group. It also leads them to actively seek information about what their ingroup does, i.e. to acquire ingroup schemas.
226
How does gender schema theory explain resilience of gender beliefs?
Gender beliefs lead children to hold very fixed gender attitudes because they ignore any information they encounter that is not consistent with ingroup information. Therefore, gender beliefs do not change as gender schema have a profound effect on what is remembered.
227
What are the implications of gender schema theory in relation to gender stereotypes?
The fact that gender schemas lead to misremembering or even distorting information has important implications for efforts to reduce gender stereotypes. This suggests that the use of counter-stereotypes may not be the best way to reduce children's gender schema.
228
What do Martin and Halverson suggest about gender preferensces?
They suggest that gender-typed preferences appear once a child is aware of which gender category they belong to. According to Kohlberg this would be aroundt he age of two or three years.
229
What did Bauer find about gender preferences?
Found that children as young as 25 months copied gender appropriate behaviours but not inappropriate behaviours.
230
What did Bandura and Bussey find about gender preferences?
Found evidence that children show gender typed preference earlier than gender identity, which was seen as a challenge to gender schema theory.
231
What did Zosuls et al find about gender preferences?
Provided evidence that children can label their gender group earlier than indicated in previous studies. They recorded samples of children's language and observed them at play in order to identify when they first started labelling themselves as a boy or girl. They concluded that children were using gender labels by the age of 19 months.
232
What did Martin and Little find in support of gender schema theory?
Found that children under the age of four showed no signs of gender stability let alone signs of constancy, but did display strong gender stereotypes about what boys and girls were permitted to do.
233
WHat did Martin and Halverson find about the effect of gender schemas on memory?
Found tht when children were asked to recall pictures of people, children under six recalled more of the gender-consistent ones (such as a male firefighter or female teacher) than gender-inconsistent ones (such as a male nurse or female chemist)
234
What did Bradbard et al find about the effect of gender schema on memory?
Told four to nine year olds that certain gender neutral items (e.g. burglar alarms, pizza cutter) were either boy or girl items. Paritipcants took a greater intest in toys labelled as ingroup (i.e. a boy was more interested in a toy labelled as a boy's toy). Also one week later they were able to remember more details about ingroup objets. This shows how gender schema are related in particular to memory (organisation of information)
235
What did Martin and Halverson find about gender schemas distorting information?
WHen children were shown consistent or inconcistent (counter-stereotypical) pictures they distorted the information, e..g a boy holding a gun or a boy holding a doll. When children were asked to describe the picture they insisted, for example, that the doll was held by a girl.
236
How may gender schema theory explain resilience of children's stereotypes?
Explains why children are frequently highly sexist despite the best efforts of parents because they actively seek to acquire gender-appropriate schema.
237
What did Hoffman find about gender stereotypes?
Reports that children whose mothers work have less stereotypes views of what men do, suggesting that children are not entirely fixed in their views but are receptive to some gender inconsistent ideas.
238
What study did Bussey and Bandura do on gender?
Found that boys and girls age four said they felt good about playing with gender-appropriate toys and awful about playing with gender-inappropriate ones. Kohlberg would predict this couldn't happen until later.
239
What did Stangor and Ruble propose about gender development?
Proposed a means of unifying the two approaches. They argue that gender schema and gender constancy may represent different processes. GST are concerned with organisation of information and therefore should affect cognitive variables such as memories, whereas gender constancy is more concerned with motivation (once you realise ou are always going to be this gender you are especially motivated to find out about this role) and should thus be associated with things like activity choice.
240
What study did Stangor and Ruble do on gender development?
Tested children age four to ten years and found that (a) memory (organisation) for gender-consistent pictures increased with age (supporting gender schema theory), and (b) that preference (motivation) for same-sex toys increased with increased gender constancy (supporting gender constancy theory)
241
How does the Freudian approach explain gender development?
Freud proposed that around the age of three, a boy becomes sexually aware and attracted to his mother. THis makes him wish his father dead so he can have his mother to himself. Such wishes make the boy feel guilty but ultimately are resolves through gender identification with his father. If the conflict is not resolve the boy may have gender identity problems. A similar process happens in girls.
242
What are the similarities between the Freudian approach and gender schema theory?
Freud's critical age is closer to GST than Kohlberg's gender constancy and Freud suggested that identification with the ingroup (same-sex parent) was important in taking on gender attitudes.
243
What did Bandura propose that gender role development is the result of?
Learning from social agents who model and reinforce gender role behaivours.
244
What is social cognitive theory on gender?
Developed by Bandura. Explains how social factors lead children to learn about gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviours. These in turn dictate gender role behaviour- behaving in a feminine or masculine way. The source of social influence includes parents, peers and the media.
245
How does social congitive theory explain gender role development?
1. (indirect reinforcement)Vicarious reinfocement- information is stored as an expectancy of future outcome. Learning such behaviours result in modelling.
2. Direct reinfocement- ALthough boys and girls may learn the characteristic behaviours of both sexes, they do not perform everything they learn.
3. Direct tuition- Begins as children acquire linguistic skills and serves as a convenient way of informing children about appropriate or inappropriate styles of conduct.
246
What did Bussey and Bandura find about gender role and direct reinforcement?
Boys may learn a great deal about the homemaking role through repeated observations of their mothers but rarely adopt such activities in their everyday life.
247
WHat did Smith and Lloyd find about the influence of parents on gender role?
Observed mothers playing with an infant who was either presented as a boy (in terms of name and clothing) or as a girl. THe mothers selected gender-appropriate toys (e.g. a doll for girls or squeky hammer for boys) and also responded more actively when a 'boy' showed increased motor activity.
248
What did Fagot et al find about the influence of parents on gender roles?
Found that parents who show the clearest patterns of differential reinfocement have children who are quickest to develop strong gender preferences.
249
How do parents influence gender roles?
Through differential reinforcement, i.e. they reinforce gender-appropriate behaviour but not gender-inappropriate behaivour.
250
What did Perry and Bussey find about the influence of peers on gender roles?
Showed film clips to children aged eight and nine. In the film boys and girls were seen selecting an apple or pear, both gender-neutral items. Later the children were given a choice of fruit. Boys selected the fruit they had seen another boy selecting, and the same for girls.
251
What did Lamb et al find about the influence on peers on gender roles?
Peers provide feedback when a friend steps outside of what is accepted as 'appropriate' behaviour for that gender, reinforcing each other for gender appropriate activities as well as punishing gender conduct that is considered inappropriate for their gender.
252
What did Bussey and Bandura find about the influence of the media on gender roles?
Found that the media generally portrays males as independent, directive, and pursuing engaging occupations and recreational activities. By contrast, women are usually shown as acting in dependent, unambitious and emotional ways.
253
What did Hodges et al find about the influence of the media on gender roles?
Men are also more likely to be shown exercising control over events, whereas women are frequently shown to be more at the mercy of others.
254
What did McGhee and Frueh find about the influence of the media on gender roles?
Those who have a higher exposure to differential gender representations tend to display more stereotypic gender role conceptions than do light viewers.
255
What did Williams find about the influence of the media on gender roles?
Studied three towns. Notel- no TV signal, Unitel - only one Canadian TV channel (CBC)and Multitel - access to a number of American channels. The behaviour and attitudes of children in these towns were assessed in various ways, including questionnaires about their gender stereotypes. Found that children in Notel and Unitel had weaker sex-typed views than children in Multitel, especially girls. The children were re-assessed two years after the introduction of TV in Notel, and it was found that their views had become significantly more sex-typed.
256
What was the limitation of modelling in Perry and Bussey's study?
The children only modelled same-sex behaviour as long as the behaviour was not counter to gender stereotypes (e.g. a man wearing a dress). SO it seems that the effects of modelling are limited by existing stereotypes.
257
What is the limitation of the role of modelling in gender roles?
Research has shown that children do not always model their behaviour on a same-sex model and that direct tuition may be more important.
258
What did Martin et al find about the effect of direct tuition on gender roles?
Found that preschool boys played with toys labelled 'boy's toys'. They did this even if the saw girls playing wit them. HOwever, they didn't play with toys labelled 'girl's toys' even when they saw boys playing with them. THis suggests that direct instruction is more important than modelling, at least in preschool children.
259
Who did Langlois and Downs find about the role of parents on gender roles?
Found that fathers were more openly disapproving of their sons' inappropriate gender behaviour (e.g. playing with dolls), whereas mothers simply reinforced gender-appropriate play and did not punish gender-inappropriate play in sons or daughters. They also found that boys reacted negatively to gender inappropriate behaviour in peers whereas girls were more tolerant.
260
What view does Maccoby have on peer influence on gender development?
Believes that peers are the prime socialising agency of gender development. However, peers are unlikely to be important in early childhood when important aspects of gender development take place. It is likely they merely reinforce existing gender role stereotypes.
261
What did Lamb and Roopnarine find about peer influences and gender development?
Observed preschool children at play and found that when male-type behaviour was reinforced in girls the behaviour continued for a shorter time than when male-type behaviour was reinforced in boys. THis suggests that peer reinfocement mainly acts as a reminder.
262
Why is it difficult to study the effects of media on gender roles?
There are no control groups for comparison.
263
How does Charlton et al study on media influence undermine it's effect on gender roles?
FOund that the introduction of tv on a community previously without it caused no changes in aggressive behaviour. Concluded that this was because of pre-existing community values that reduced the effect of exposure to the media. This suggests that simply exposing children to stereotypes is not sufficient to change attitudes.
264
What did SIgnorellli and Bruce find about media effects on gender roles?
Examined over 30 years of TV programming and found very little change in gender stereotypes.
265
Why does social cognitive theory not undermine the influence of biological factors?
Bandura did not deny the role of biological factors in social learning. In terms of gender he recognised that the starting point for social learning is knowing which sex you are.
266
What did Pingree find about the effect of media on gender roles?
Found that stereotyping was reduced when children were shown commercials with women in non-traditional roles. THis has led to pressure on programme makes to try to use this knowledge to alter such attitudes. However, also found that pre-adolscent boys displayed stronger stereotypes after exposure to the non-traditional models.
267
What is culture?
It is the rules, customs, morals, childrearing practices, and so on, that bind a group of people together. There is a distinction made between individualist cultures, where members are more focused on their own interests and on independence, and collectivist cultures, where group interests come first.
268
What are cultural similarities?
Division of labour
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What are the cultural variations?
Magnitude of sex difference, such as spatial perception conformity and historical changes.
270
What did Munroe and Munroe find about gender and cultural influences?
Cross-cultural studies of gender show that every society has some division of labour and behaviour by gender.
271
What did Berry et al find about gender and cultural influences?
Looked at male superiority on spatial perceptual tasks in 17 societies. They found that this superiority is only found in relatively tightly knit, sedentary societies, but absent or even reversed in 'looser' nomadic societies. This shows that sex differences on spatial perceptual tasks interact with ecological an cultural factors.
272
What did Berry et al find about gender, conformity and cultural influences?
Reported that conformity is highest in tight, sedentary societies, with a correlation between sex difference and ecocultural index of +0.78.
273
What did Margaret Mead do on sex and temperament in different cultures?
Conducted a study of social groups in Papua New Guinea, providing evidence of cultural role differences. SHe found the Arapesh men and women to be gentle, responsive and cooperative. The Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power and position. By contrast the Tchambuli exhibited gender role differences: the women were dominant, impersonal and managerial, whereas the men were more emotionally dependent.
274
Why did Freeman criticise Mead's study on sex and temperament in different cultures?
He worked with native Samoans and was told that they had provided Mead with the information she wanted to hear. However, Appell has criticized Freeman's version for being inaccurate.
275
What study did Williams and Best do on sex stereotypes in different cultures?
They tested 2,8000 students in 30 different countries using a 300-item adjective checklist. Participants were asked to decide for each adjective whether it was more frequently associated with men or women. There was a broad consensus across countries. Men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and autonomous, whereas women were more nurturant, deferent and interested in affiliation. This suggests there are universal gender stereotypes about male-female characteristics.
276
What are the limitations on Williams and Best's study on sex stereotypes in difference cultures?
1. THe task was a forced choice one. THis means that the division between male and female stereotypes may be exaggerated.
2. The task was related to stereotypes and not to actual behaviours.
3. THe participants were uni students who share common attributes- could explain high level of consensus.
277
What did Lang point out about Native Americans?
Used the term 'two spirit' to refer to people who have both a male and a female spirit. Gender (male, female, or two spirit) is decided by each child at puberty and at that time they choose what clothing to wear to physically display their gender choice.
278
What is cultural determinism?
The position that male and female differences are determined by social factors rather than biological ones.
279
What view did Mead have on gender and cultural influences?
Originally cultural determinism, but later changed view to one of cultural relativism. In re-analysing her original data she realised that although both sexes of the Arapesh were non-aggressive, and both sexes of Mundugumor were aggressive, in all three societies the men were more aggressive than the women. This gugests that some behaviours are innate and universal but the degree to which these behaviours are expressed is relative to the particular culture.
280
What is the problem with imposed etics and research into the cultural influences of gender?
Researches mainly use tests and other measures developed by Western psychology. THe results of such imposed etics are likely to be meaningless unless conducted with the cultural group for which they are designed. THe outcome is that conclusions are produced that are culturally biased in favour of the culture who designed the test.
281
What did Berry et al argue about studies into cultural influences on gender?
Believed that most cross-cultural studies are driven by the interests of Western psychologists, using concepts rooted in Western thinking about human behaviour. They recommend the use of more genuine indigenous research to avoid such biases.
282
What did Sugihara and Katsurada find about cultural influences on gender?
FOund that Japanese men do not seek to be 'macho' like Americans, but instead value being well-rounded in the arts, a trait normally regarded as feminine.
283
What explanation did Van Leeuwen develop for the cultural differences in spatial perception?
The magnitude of male superiority on spatial task was highest in tight sedentary socieites. In such socieites the division of labour is greatest because women stay at home wile men hunt, whereas in Nomadic socieities both men and women travel and hunt and there is less division of labour. Where there is a strong division of labour men will be given practice from early childhood related to hunting and this would enhance their spatial-perceptual skills.
284
What explanation did Kimura offer for the cultural differences in spatial perception?
Offers an alternative biological interpretation, suggesting that in hunting societies those with poor spatial perception are likely to die, thus eliminating such genes from the gene pool. This would explain why, in societies where both men and women hunt (nomadic societies) there would be less gender difference in spatial abilityies.
285
What did Schlegel and Barry find about cultural influences of gender?
In societies where women contribute a lot to food accumulation (such as the nomadic societies) women are highly valued, allowed more freedom, and generally regarded less as objects for male sexual and reproductive needs. This means that women occupy a higher position within the social group and therefore have more power and less need to conform to the demands of the powerful members of society.
286
What did Williams and Best find about differences in gender roles and cultural influence?
The greater the socioeconomic development of a society, the less difference there is between male and female roles.
287
WHat do the cultural influences on gender suggest?
Universals points to biology but differences within these universals points to the role of social factors as being equally important as biological factors. The final conclusion is that there is a complex interaction between both factors.
