Gender Flashcards
What is sex?
Refers to biological differences between men and women (e.g. differences in genitals and internal reproductive organs).
What is gender?
Refers to cultural and socially constructed differences between men and women.
What are gender roles?
The attitudes, interests and behaviours that members of each sex stereotypically adopt.
What role do hormones play in gender?
Govern most gender development. Produced both prenatally and in adolescence. Influence the development of both genitalia and brain.
What happens to girls exposed to high levels of testosterone in utero?
Can have ambiguous genitalia (swollen labia resembling penis). Usually identified as female and usually content although Berenbaum et al indicated that they are more tomboyish.
What differences in female and male brains did Hoag identify?
Girls better at empathizing, boys better at spacial navigation
What did Geschwind et al suggest about the differences between male and female brains?
That the difference is due to testosterone effect on the developing brain.
What did Quadagno find about the role of testosterone in gender?
Found that female monkeys exposed to testosterone in Utero engaged in more rough and tumble play.
What are androgens?
Male hormones, e.g. testosterone
What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?
Some XY individuals (i.e. chromosomally male) have an insensitivity to androgens-so their male genitalia does not develop.
What happened with the Batista family?
Four XY children raised as girls. Puberty brought on large amounts of testosterone. Male genitalia appeared and girls changed to boys. Accepted without question as a genetic abnormality in the family meant that androgen insensitivity syndrome had been experienced by other relatives before.
What did Money claim?
That nurture was far more important than nature.
What study did Reiner & Gearhart do on gender development?
16 genetic males with little or no penis at birth. 2 raised male; 14 female. Male stayed male; 8/14 ‘females’ reassigned themselves as male by age 16
Why can genes and hormones not fully explain gender?
Genetic sex does not always match external genitalia. Hormones do not give a simple formula for establishing gender.
Why can the biological approach to gender be deterministic?
A combination of genes, hormones and socialization makes the outcome for every individual very unpredictable.
What does the evolutionary explanation argue about gender roles?
Argue that gender role division appeared as an adaption to the challenges faced by ancestral humans. The role differences between men and women are more a result of our biological inheritance than a result of socialization.
How does the evolutionary approach explain division of labour in gender?
Ancestral women would have spent a large portion of adult life either pregnant or producing milk. Female hunting would have reduced the group’s reproductive success. Women at home could contribute by growing vegetables, making clothes etc. helping to avoid the prospect of starvation when hunting was unsucessful
What did Kuhn and Stiner suggest about division of labour and gender?
Suggest that a gender division of labour is why humans (homo sapiens) survived and Neanderthals (of whom both males and females hunted) did not.
How does the evolutionary explanation explain mate choice?
Men give their genetic material best chance if they mate frequency and select fertile women with apparent physical health. Women also seek healthiness but are more driven by the male’s ability to provide resources. Thus, a woman try to maximize physical attributes, and man try to show wealth/status to attract partner.
Who developed the E-S Theory?
Baron-Cohen
What is the E-S theory?
Women better at Empathizing (understanding other’s feelings), men better at Systematizing (understanding and building systems)
What did Taylor et al say about gender and cognitive style?
Women more focused on interpersonal relationships. Stems from ancestral challenges- males would deal with threats by fighting or fleeing but women had children to protect so would be safer under threat with a group. Today women more likely to ‘tend and befriend’ at times of stress while men more likely to get defensive.
What are the weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation?
- Deterministic, ignore social explanations
- Speculative, i.e. no firm factual basis.
- Tzedakis et al- there are other equally likely explanations for the disappearnace of Neaderthals.
What did Taylor et al find in support of the evolutionary explanation?
Levels of oxytocin (makes people more sociable) increased in women when stressed.
What did Baron-Cohen suggest about the implications of evolutionary explanation?
Autism may be an extreme male brain. Excellent at systematising, not good at empathising. Autism is characterized by difficulties socially and with theory of mind (understanding what other people are thinking/feeling)
What did Gangestad et al suggest about the biosocial approach?
- There are significant universals in gender behaviour (likely biological factors)
- There are significant cultural variations in gender differences (likely social factors)
What did Money and Ehrhardt suggest about gender and biosocial theory?
Theory sees social labelling and differential gender treatment interacting with biological factors. Predicted that (with intersex) if a genetic male is mislabelled as female and treated as a girl before the age of three, he would acquire the genetic idnetity of a girl.
Who proposed the social role theory?
Eagly & Wood
What does the social role theory argue about gender?
Ev. theory proposes that selective pressures caused physical and psychological differences. Social role theory says these pressures only caused physical differences- these have led to sex role allocations which have created the psychological differences. SO roles cause psychological differences rather than vice versa.
What does the evolutionary theory state that selective pressured led to?
1. Physical differences: Men- greater upper body strength, faster Women- ability to look after children 2. Psychological differences: men more aggressive Women more nurturing 3. Social roles: Men-hunter/provider Women-domestic goddess
What does the social role theory state selective pressures led to?
To physical differences between men and women. From these social roles evolved. These resulted in psychological differences occurring.
What does the social role theory say about the division of labour?
Biologically based physical differences allow men and women to perform certain tasks more efficiently. However, if the society does not require such strength or offer alternative childcare options, social roles are more similar and psychological differences are reduced.
What does social role theory say about mate choice?
What men and women desire in a partner is not affected by the reproductive quality of certain traits but by their social roles. Women seek men who are good wage earners. Men seek women who are successful in the domestic role.
Who proposed the social role theory?
Eagly and Wood
What does the social role theory say about hormonal differences?
Suggested that hormonal differences between men and women may be the outcome of social roles and subsequent psychological differences rather than the cause. e.g. male aggressiveness results in the production of testosterone, not the other way round.
What is the weaknesses of the biosocial theory?
- Lack of evidence, e.g. David Reimer showed opposite
2. Luxen offers a simpler alternative to social role theory explaining the reduced division of gender roles
What are the strengths of the biosocial theory?
Much better than the evolutionary approach for gender equality; EV. Theory suggests innate differences whereas SRT says that changes in social roles are more flexible.
What was the David Reimer study?
Wanted to see whether children are born gender neutral. Bruce and Brian were identical twins, Bruce’s penis was accidentally burnt off. Money convinced Reimer family to raise Bruce as a girl. Reported that ‘Brenda’ adapted to role of female, compared to ‘her’ brother. Concluded gender is a social thing.
What is the problem with David Reimer’s study?
‘Brenda’ later had a sex change after being generally distressed and became ‘David’. Teachers reported ‘her’ as a tomboy and more masculine. Money also used unethical practices in the study. Cannot be generalized.
What is gender dysphoria?
When an individual is uncomfortable with the gender assigned at birth.
What is thought to be the cause of gender dysphoria?
Traditionally thought to be purely psychological but recent research has found evidence of biological causes (e.g. prenatal hormone exposure)
What is the rate of gender dysphoria?
Males-to-females outnumber females-to-males by about 5:1, (NHS 2012). 1 in 4000 in the UK are receiving medical help for GD>
What is gender identity disorder?
A psychiatric classification for people experiencing gender dysphoria. Only diagnosed when a patient doesn’t have any physical intersex condition.
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
When XX females have high prenatal testosterone levels resulting in various degrees of external male genitalia.
What are the psychosocial explanations of gender dysphoria?
- Mental illness
2. Mother-son relationships
What does the mental illness explanation say about gender dysphoria?
A number of psychologists (e.g. Coates et al) propose that GD is linked to metal illness arising from childhood trauma.
What did Cole et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found no greater level of psychiatric conditions in GD than in ‘normal’ population.
What did Stoller suggest about gender dysphoria?
Suggested that gender identity disorder is a result of distorted parental attitudes, e.g. overly close mother-son relationships.
What did Zucker et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that 64% of boys with Gender identity disorder were also disagnosed with separation anxiety disorder (only applies to MTF)
What are the biological explanations for gender dysphoria?
- Mismatch between hormones and genetic sex, e.g. AIS, CAH
- Transsexual gene
- Environmental effects, e.g. insecticides containing oestrogen
- Brain-sex theory of transsexualism
- Phantom limb
What did Dessens et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that 95% of genetic females exposed to male hormones were content with female gender role (against biological explanations)
What did Hare et al find about gender dysphroia?
Identified differences in male-to-female DNA causing reduced action of testosterone.
What did Vreugdenhil et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that boys born to mothers exposed to dioxins displayed feminized play (supports biological explanation)
What is the brain-sex theory of transsexualism?
Male and female brains are different- perhaps transsexuals’ brains do not match their genetic sex.
What did Rametti et al find about gender dysphoria?
Found that female-to-male brains were more similar to males (same gender identity) than female (same biological sex). (supports brain-sex theory)
Why do Chung et al and HUlshoff Pol et al argue against the brain-sex theory?
Brain diffences might be effect rather than cause.
How is phantom limbs used to explain gender dysphoria?
People with an amputated limb still feel its presence. 2/3 Female to male trans report feeling phantom penis from childhood-including phantom erectons.
What did Ramachandran et al demonstrate about phantom limbs?
Demonstrated the brain’s ‘crosswiring’ that results in this.
What did Ramachandran suggest about gender dysphoria?
Suggests that GD is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome.
What is the difficulty with explanations for gender dysphoria?
Unclear because gender dysphoria may not be one single condition (E.g. difference between Blanchard’s (1985) ‘homosexual transsexuals’ and ‘non-homosexual transsexuals’ who are autogynephilic.
Who developed the gender constancy theory?
Kohlberg
What does Kohlberg’s Gender constancy theory emphasize?
The role of thinking (cognition) in the process of gender development.
What is Kohlberg’s gender constancy theory based on?
Drawn largely from Piaget’s stage theory of child developmet- the way a child thinks changes and becomes more complex with biological maturation.
What are the stages of Kohlberg’s gender constancy theory?
- Stage one: Gender Labeling (2-3 years old)
- Stage two: Gender Stability (approx 4 years)
- Stage three: Gender consistency (Approx. age 6)
What is the gender labeling stage of Kohlberg’s gender constancy theory?
Labels based on outward appearance only: “He has long hair now so must be a girl”. Towards the end, children will label themselves. Like Piaget ‘pre-operational’ it lacks internal logic-not internally consistent.
What did Thompson find about gender development?
Found that 2 year olds were 76% correct in identifying their sex, 3 year olds 90% correct. Shows increasing ability to label themselves, as predicted by Kohlberg’s theory.
What is the gender stability stage of Kohlberg’s gender constancy theory?
Recognise that gender is consistent over time- boys become men, girls become women. Do not yet understand consistency over situations- believing men may become women if engaged in feminine activities. Under 7, children still swayed by appearance.
What did Slaby and Frey find about gender development?
“Were you a little girl or a boy when you were a baby?”- children didn’t recognise time stability until 3-4 years old.
What did McConaghy find about gender development?
Children under 5 judged doll with male genitalia wearing dress to be female.
What is the gender consistency stage of Kohlberg’s gender constancy theory?
Final stage. Gender is consistent across situations. This is complete gender constancy. Start to learn gender-appropriate behaviour.
What did Slaby and Frey find in criticism of gender constancy theory?
Consistency can emerge as young as 5. Boys develop gender consistency sooner than girls (social learning theory?- powerful males, or great punishment?)
What did Bem argue about gender development?
That it is genital knowledge rather than gender consistency that underlies gender development.
What did Bem find on gender development?
Showed children a picture of a nude female toddler and then the same child dressed in female and male clothes. 40% of 3-5 years olds capable of gender conservation. Those that were not capable of GC were then tested for genital knowledge and 77% failed the test. Bem said that it was lack of knowledge about different genitalia that led to the seeming lack of GC.
Why did Bem criticise gender constancy theory?
Criticised the basic methodology of the tasks; children identifying gender on the basis of appearance are showing what they have learned about the world. CLothing is a much more relevant cue in our society.
How does gender schema theory criticise gender constancy theory?
GST suggests that children can become gender-appropriate before gender constancy is achieved.
What is a schema?
A mental representation of an aspect of the world. More complex than a stereotype.
Who developed gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson
What are the key factors that distinguish gender schema theory and gender constancy theory?
- Gender-relevant information is acquired before gender constancy
- Go further in terms of how schemes affect later behaviour
When do gender-typed preferences appear according to gender schema theory?
Once a child can self-categorize as male or female.
What did Bauer find about gender development?
Found children as young as 25 months copied gender appropriate behaviour (Supports gender schema theory)
What did Bandura et al find about gender development?
Found that gender-typed preferences develop before they can self-categorise.
What did Zosules find about gender development?
Found that children can label gender group earlier than indicated by Kohlberg and others- by the age of 19 months.
What is an ingroup?
The group with which you identify. You have many ingroups. People positively evaluate their ingroup and negatively evaluate outgroups.
What does gender schema theory say about ingroups/outgroups and gender development?
Children motivated to be like their own group and avoid behaviours of outgroups. Actively seek information about their ingroup-i.e. to acquire ingroup schemas. GST says that children focus on ingroup schemas from an early age, before gender constancy.
What does gender schema theory say about the resilience of gender belief?
Gender beliefs lead children to hold very fixed gender attitudes because they ignore information that is inconsistent with their ingroup schemas.
What did Hoffman find about gender development?
That children with working mothers have less steretyped views on male/female roles, suggesting that children can be receptive to some gender inconsistent ideas.
What did Martin and Little find about gender development?
Found that children under 4 showed no signs of gender stability/constancy but did display strong male/females stereotypes (Supports GST)
What did Martin and Halverson find about gender development?
Found that recall in children under 6 was better when the material was gender-consistent. (and memory could be completely distorted if original didn’t fit schema) (Supports GST)
What did Bradbard et al find about gender development?
Told 4-9 year olds that certain objects were ‘boy objects’ or ‘girl objects’ and found that interest was greater of ingroup objects and memory was also better for ingroup objects.
WHat have Stangor and Ruble argued about gender development?
Proposed that gender schema and gender constancy may represent different processes. Schema involve organising information, therefore affects cognitive variables e.g. memory. Constancy is largely concerned with motivation. THerefore affects things like acitivty choice. Unify GCT and GST.
What did Stangor and Ruble find about gender deelopment?
Tested 4-10 years old and found memory for gender-consistent pictures increased with age (supports GST), and preference for same-sex toys increased with gender constancy (supports GCT)
Who developed social cognitive theory?
Bandura
What does social cognitive theory suggest about gender?
Proposes that gender role development is the result of learning from social agents who model and reinforce these behaviours. Explains how social factors lead children to learn gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviours.
What are the key processes of social cognitive theory?
- Indirect reinforcement
- Children observe behaviour and vicariously learn consequences. Results in modelling. - DIrect reinforcement
- Learning about both sexes but only adopting gender-specific activities - Direct Tuition
- Learning through explicit instruction.
What are the sources of social influence?
Parents, Media and Peers
How do parents affect gender roles according to social cognitive theory?
Differential reinforcement: Reinforce gender-appropriate but not gender-inappropriate behaviour.
What did Smith and Lloyd find about gender roles?
Mothers selected gender-appropriate toys and reacted more actively when a boy showed increased motor activity.
What did Fagot et al find about gender roles?
Showed clear link between strong parental differential reinforcement and strong gender preferences in children.
What is differential reinforcement?
The implemention of reinforcing only the appropriate responses (or behaviour you wish to increase) and applying extinction to all other responses.
How do peers affect gender roles according to social cognitive theory?
As child’s social world expands, peers become important models of gender-appropriate behaviours
What did Perry and Bussey find about gender roles?
Film clips depicting boys/girls selecting certain fruit (gender-neutral) impacted on audience of 8-9 year olds and made children select the same fruit that their same-sex model did.
What did Lamb et al find about gender roles?
Showed how peers also engage in direct tuition in the form of feedback when a friend acts in a gender-appropriate manner “Don’t be a sissy”
What did Bussey and Bandura find about gender roles?
Media portrays men and women differently;
Men-independent, assertive etc.
Women- dependent, unambitious, emotional etc.
What did Hodges et al find about gender roles?
Men more likely to be shown exercising control over events while women are more at the mercy of others in media.
What did Mcghee and Frueh find about gender roles?
Higher exposure to differential gender representations in the media linked to more stereotypical gender role conception.
How does media affect self-efficacy?
Seeing somebody similar to oneself raises a belief in one’s abilities.
In what way are the effects of modelling in social cognitive theory limited?
Children only modelled same-sex behaviour when it was not counter to gender stereotypes. So effects of modelling are limited by existing stereotypes.
What did Martin et al ind about gender roles?
Preschool boys played with labelled ‘boy’s toys’ even if they saw girls playing with them and didn’t play with labelled ‘girls’ toys’ even if they saw boys playing with them (direct tuition)
How did Hildebrandt et al criticise the affect of direct tuition on gender roles?
When instructor (parent, teacher…) does not practice what they preach the effect of direct tuition is weakened.
What did Langlois and Downs find about gender roles?
Fathers more openyl disapproving of sons’ inappropriate gender behaviour while mothers merely reinforced gender-appropriate play (not punishing gender inappropriate behaviour) Found similiar pattern in peer reinforcement, girls more tolerant of gender-inappropriate behaviour. Likely to do with partriachy.
What did Maccoby argue about gender development?
Peers are the most important socialising agency of gender developement (supports social cognitive theory)
What did Lamb and Roopnarine argue about gender roles?
Peer behaviour doesn’t create but reinforces gender stereotypes. Observed preschoolers playing, saw reinforcement in action
What did Charlton et al find about gender roles?
Investigated aggression (not gender) by looking at a community that previously had no TV and found no change after TV was introduced. Argued that pre-existing community values reduce effect of exposure to media.
WHat is culture?
The rules, customs, morals etc. that bind a group of people together. Can be individualist or collectivist.
