Aggression

Question 1

What does IDA include?

Answer 1

Ethical issuesGender, cultural or historical biasReal world applicationsDeterminismReductionismNature/Nature

Question 2

What is aggression?

Answer 2

An act carried out with the intention to harm another person.

Question 3

What is person-oriented aggression?

Answer 3

When the goal is to cause harm to another. This can be through physical or verbal means. It can also occur through showing hostility to another.

Question 4

What is instrumental aggression?

Answer 4

The goal is to obtain some kind of reward or preferred outcome. This can be played out through coercion of another person.

Question 5

What is reactive aggression?

Answer 5

A response to a hostile or aggressive situation. Aggression is shown often in response to provocation.

Question 6

What is sanctioned aggression?

Answer 6

Aggressive behaviour which is either legal or permitted because the ultimate outcome is seen as justifiable.

Question 7

What does social learning theory say?

Answer 7

That learning can occur simply through observing others-also known as models- in our environment.

Question 8

What does Bandura say about social learning theory?

Answer 8

That learning occurs from observing others. The mind, behaviour and the environment all play a role in learning behaviour. We learn through observation of models, which may lead to imitation of that behaviour.

Question 9

What is the advantage of Bandura’s approach to social learning theory?

Answer 9

It deals with the major criticism of behaviourist approach, which ignores mental processes, by taking account of cognitive processes.

Question 10

What are the four conditions for social learning?

Answer 10

Attention: The individual notices someone in their environmentRetention: The individual remembers what they have observedMoto Reproduction: The individual replicates the behaviour shown by the modelMotivation: The individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed.

Question 11

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 11

Learning NOT as a result of direct reinforcement, rather an individuals observation of another person’s experiences.

Question 12

What type of models exist?

Answer 12

Live models; physically present in our environment e.g. mother, teacher, pop star etc.Symbolic Models; e.g. people in films, books, cartoons etc

Question 13

When is symbolic modelling thought to have a greater effect?

Answer 13

It is considered to have a greater effect on cultures where media is widely available.

Question 14

Who did the Bobo doll studies?

Answer 14

Albert Bandura

Question 15

What did the Bobo Doll studies investigate?

Answer 15

It investigated the effects of observing aggressive behaviour

Question 16

What type of study what the bob doll studies?

Answer 16

It was a laboratory study

Question 17

What were the aims of the Bobo doll studies?

Answer 17

To demonstrate that if children were witnesses to an aggressive display by an adult they would imitate this aggressive behaviour when given the opportunity.

Question 18

What were the hypotheses of the Bobo doll studies?

Answer 18

1. Children exposed to aggressive models will reproduce aggressive acts resembling those of the mdoels2. Children exposed to non-aggressive models will reproduce less aggressive acts3. Children will imitate the behaviour of a same-sex model to a greater degree than a model of the opposite sex4. Boys will be more predisposed than girls towards imitating aggression

Question 19

What were the participants in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 19

36 boys & 36 girls, between 37-69 months (mean was 4 years & 4 months) All from Stanford University nursery school, and consent were given by the parents. Children were matched on the bases of their pre-existing aggressiveness.

Question 20

Who were the models in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 20

One male adult and one female adult.

Question 21

What were the three conditions of the bobo doll studies?

Answer 21

Aggressive condition, non-aggressive condition and the control group. Each had 24 participants.

Question 22

What was the aggressive conditions in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 22

24 children observed an adult being aggressive to a bobo doll.

Question 23

What was the non-aggressive conditions in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 23

24 children observed an adult playing and ignoring a bobo doll.

Question 24

What was the method used in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 24

1. Children were taken to a room with toys in it and either an aggressive or non aggressive model entered the room2. Mild aggression arousal; shown toys they couldn’t play with3. Children observed in another room to see if they imitate behaviour.

Question 25

What were the results of the bobo doll studies?

Answer 25

1. Aggressive group participants reproduced physical & verbal aggression used by model2. Boys produced more physical aggression3. Participants more likely to imitate same-sex model4. Participants were shocked & surprised at female model displaying physical & verbal aggression

Question 26

What conclusions were drawn from the bobo doll studies?

Answer 26

That learning can take place by observation (supports SLT) as reseach demonstates children will imitate behaviour of others in absence of reward/reinforcement. Children more likely to learn from same sex models (gender differences of aggressive behaviours being imitated)

Question 27

What did Bandura and Walters find in later bobo doll studies?

Answer 27

Found that children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts showed a high level of aggression in their own play. Those who saw the model being punished showed a low level of aggression in their play. This showed learning by vicarious reinforcement.

Question 28

How did Bandura later extend the bobo doll studies?

Answer 28

He wanted to find out if punishment had prevented learning or punishment prevented performance of the behaviour. He repeated the study into the role of punishment, but hen offered rewards to all the children for performing the model’s aggressive behaviours. He found the latter to be true, as when offered rewards all three groups showed the same level of imitation.

Question 29

What were the strengths of the research method used in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 29

It is possible to control extraneous variables, such as making sure that children are matched on aggressiveness so that you can be more certain that it is the IV that caused the aggression shown.

Question 30

What are the limitations of the research method used in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 30

Reducing behaviour to a simple set of variables may make it meaningless, so we can’t really relate the findings to everyday life- aggression has multiple causes. A lab experiment is a contrived experiment & children may not behave as they normally do.

Question 31

Why is it difficult to generalise the findings of the bobo doll studies?

Answer 31

1. American culture is more aggressive than some cultures, so their may be a cultural bias2. Participants are children so may not be relevant to adolescent or adult behaviour3. Middle-class children used, and they were at Stanford which is a high status and prestigious uni, so can’t generalise tow ider society.

Question 32

What type of data was collected in the Bobo doll studies?

Answer 32

Quantitative data was collected, for example number of times a child imitated specific acts of violence.

Question 33

What were the strengths of using quantitative data in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 33

Makes it easier to analyse the data because you can directly compare children in the different conditions. Using such data you can draw a bar char, and do statistical tests to determine if the difference is significant.

Question 34

What were the limitations of using quantitative data in the bobo doll studies?

Answer 34

Doesn’t explain why some children did imitate the model whilst others didn’t, which could have possibly be found by interview. It also could mask certain trends, for example there were occasions where the children with the aggressive model was less aggressive than the children with the non-aggressive model.

Question 35

Does the Bobo doll studies suggest that aggression is nature or nurture?

Answer 35

It suggests that aggression can be learned, but there is some evidence that levels of aggression may be innate as the boys were more aggressive than the girls.

Question 36

What were the ethical issues of the bobo doll studies?

Answer 36

1. They taught children to become more aggressive and deliberately provoked them2. The children may have been alarmed watching an aggressive models3. Issues with informed consent with children

Question 37

Why could the bobo doll studies lack ecological validity?

Answer 37

1. People may well not do the same things to a real person as they would a doll2. It doesn’t really help understanding long-term aggression

Question 38

What study did Bandura do with a clown?

Answer 38

He tried the same study as the bobo doll studies, but used a film where a woman beat a live clown; when the children went into a room with a live clown, they punched, kicked and hit him with hammers just as they had seen in the film.

Question 39

What is the real world applications of the bobo doll studies?

Answer 39

It is very important in explaining media effects on aggression,

Question 40

How does social learning theory say children learn aggression?

Answer 40

Through observation of role models. They learn the consequences of aggression by watching others being reinforced or punished (vicarious reinforcement). Thus they learn the behaviours and they also learn whether and when such behaviours are worth repeating.

Question 41

What did Bandura claim was necessary for social learning to take place?

Answer 41

The child must form mental representations of events in their social environment. The child must also represent possible rewards and punishments for their aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcomes. When appropriate opportunities arise in the future, the child will display the learned behaviour as long as the expectation of reward is greater than expectation of punishment.

Question 42

What is necessarily for reproduction of behaviour in social learning theory?

Answer 42

1. Maintenance through direct experience2. Self-efficacy expectancies

Question 43

What is maintenance through direct experience in social learning theory?

Answer 43

If a child is rewarded for a behaviour, they are likely to repeat the same action in similar situations in the future.

Question 44

What is self-efficacy expectancies in social learning theory?

Answer 44

IN addition to forming expectancies of the likely outcomes of their aggression, children also develop confidence in their ability to carry out aggressive actions.

Question 45

What did Philips (1986) find in support of social learning theory?

Answer 45

He found that daily homicide rates in the US almost always increased in the week following a major boxing match, suggesting viewers were imitating behaviour they watched and social learning is evident in adults as well as children.

Question 46

What is the strengths for social learning theory in regards to aggression?

Answer 46

1. Supporting research2. Research has high reliability3. Cultural evidence.

Question 47

What are the weaknesses of social learning theory in regards to aggression?

Answer 47

1. Lacks ecological validity2. Reductionist3. Demand characteristics4. Ethical issues.

Question 48

What did Patterson et al find in support of aggression? (1989)

Answer 48

He demonstrated that role models are important in the development of anti-social behaviour (in all genders) and that parents are the most important role model. They found that very aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection and little positive feedback.

Question 49

What other study did Bandura do on social learning theoryand the influential role of the entertainment industry?

Answer 49

They found that viewing aggression by cartoon characters produces as much aggression as viewing live or filmed aggressive behaviour by adults.

Question 50

Why does Bandura’s research have high reliability?

Answer 50

Because his research was predominately carried out in the laboratory where he had complete control over the IV (whether there was positive/negative reinforcmenet) and the DV. This suggests that if the research was carried out again then the same results could be achieved.

Question 51

What cultural evidence is there for social learning theory?

Answer 51

In the Kung San of the Kalahari desert aggression is rare. Parents do not reward or punish aggressive behaviour they try to distract children, whilst the mundugmor show the opposite pattern, in which violence is the norm and status is determined by the amount of aggression shown. Suggests SLT can be applied universally.

Question 52

What did Flnagan (2000) discover that criticises social learning theory?

Answer 52

He suggests that testosterone has been cited as a primary cause of aggression and other genetic and neuroanatomical structures are involved. SLT does not stress the importance of biological factors, so suggests it is reductionist.

Question 53

What are neurotransmitters?

Answer 53

Chermicals stored next to the synapse

Question 54

How do nerve impulses cross the synapse?

Answer 54

When the action potential reaches the axon terminal it hits a little gap. This is known as a synapse. Chemicals are storned next to the synapse (neurotransmitters), when the AP hits the chemicals they were released into the gap and they jump across. This is an all or nothing response.

Question 55

Why is crossing the synapse an all or nothing response?

Answer 55

To cross the synapse enough AP must arrive at the terminal in the axon otherwise there will not be enough transmitter released to fire the impulse across.

Question 56

How is serotonin thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 56

Thought to reduce aggression by inhibiting the amygdala and therefore the responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response.

Question 57

What are low levels of serotonin in the brain associated with?

Answer 57

An increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide.

Question 58

What study did Mann et Al (1990) do on neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 58

Gave 35 healthy subjects dexflenfluamine which is know to deplete serotonin. Using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, they found that dexflenfluamine treatment in males (but not females) was associated with an increase in hostility and aggression scores.

Question 59

What study did Raleigh et al (1991) do on neural explanations for aggressions?

Answer 59

Using Vervet monkeys, they found that those on high tryptophan diets (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of aggression and vice versa.

Question 60

What did Popova et al (1991) do on neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 60

Showed that in animals bred for domestication and docile temperaments show over time increased levels of serotonin.

Question 61

What are the evidence for the role of serotonin in aggression?

Answer 61

1. Evidence from non human studies supports the importance of serotonin2. Evidence from antidepressants. If low levels of serotonin are associated with low impulse control and aggressive behaviour, drugs that clinically raise serotonin levels should produce a concurrent lowering in aggression.

Question 62

What study did Bond (2005) do on neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 62

Established in clinical trials that antidepressant drugs which elevate serotonin reduce irritability and impulsive aggression.

Question 63

What is an alternative theory to low levels of serotonin as a cause of aggression?

Answer 63

That low serotonin metabolism (the ability to recycle serotonin at the synaptic clef), which in turns leads to developing a greater number of serotonin recepters.

Question 64

What did Arora and Meltzer (1989) find about neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 64

Found that victims of violent suicide had increased numbers of serotonin receptors in the prefrontal cortex.

Question 65

How does alcohol affect serotonin?

Answer 65

Alcohol consumption interferes with the metabolism of serotonin in the brain.

Question 66

What did Badawy (2006) find about neural explanation for aggression?

Answer 66

Found a link between alcohol consumption and aggressive behaviour, but this is only correlational, and other factors, such as alcohol depression because of depression (linked to low serotonin levels) confuse the issue.

Question 67

How is Dopamine thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 67

The link between dopamine and aggression is not as well established but it is thought that increases in dopamine will produce an increase in aggressive behaviour.

Question 68

What did Lavine (1997) find about neural explanation for aggression?

Answer 68

Increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have also been associated with aggressive behaviour.

Question 69

What did Buitelaar (2003) find about neural explanation for aggression?

Answer 69

Antipsychotics, which reduce dopamine activity in the brain, have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents.

Question 70

What is the problem with using dopamine levels as an explanation for aggression?

Answer 70

Evidence is inconclusive about the causal role of dopamine in aggression; recent research suggests that its influence might be as a consequence.

Question 71

What did Couppis and Kennedy (2008) find about neural explanation for aggression?

Answer 71

Found in mice that, a reward pathway in the brain becomes engaged in response to an aggressive event that the dopamine is involved in as a positive reinforce in this pathway. Individuals will seek out an aggressive encounter to receive a rewarding sensation.

Question 72

What are the neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 72

The levels of serotonin and Dopamine, which are neurotransmitters.

Question 73

How is testosterone thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 73

The male sex hormone testosterone is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood onwards due to its action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression.

Question 74

What did Dabbs et al (1987) find about hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 74

Tested the salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals. Violent criminals had higher testosterone levels.

Question 75

What did Lindman et al (1987) find about hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 75

Young males who were aggressive when drunk had higher testosterone levels than those who did not act aggressive.

Question 76

What is the problem of using testosterone as an explanation for aggression?

Answer 76

There is inconsistent evidence. Studies which show a positive correlation have used a small sample and have used male prisoners.

Question 77

What distinction did Mazur (1985) make?

Answer 77

He distinguished between aggression and dominance. In humans the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely to be expressed in more varied and subtle ways.

Question 78

How is cortisol thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 78

Cortisol appears to have a mediating effect on other aggression-related hormones such as testosterone.

Question 79

What did Dabbs et al (1991) find on hormonal explanations for aggression? (Cortisol)

Answer 79

Cortisol increases anxiety and therefore inhibits aggression and increases social withdrawal.

Question 80

What did Virkkunen (1985) find on hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 80

There are low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders

Question 81

What did Tennes and Kreye (1985) find on hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 81

There are low levels of cortisol in violent schoolchildren.

Question 82

What did McBurnett et al (2000) find on hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 82

He did a four year study of boys with behaviour problems. Boys with low cortisol levels began antisocial acts at a younger age and exhibited three times the number of aggressive symptoms.

Question 83

What are the hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 83

The role of testosterone and cortisol.

Question 84

What did Sandberg do (1971)?

Answer 84

First identified what is known as 47 XYY karyotype.

Question 85

What is 47 XYY Karotype?

Answer 85

It is possible for a male to have an extra Y sex chromonsome making them XYY

Question 86

What did Court-Brown (1965-67) find on the XYY Karotype?

Answer 86

Found that of a sample of 314 in a high security hospital, 15 were found to have chromosomal abnormalities, including 9 who had an extra Y chromosome. The incidence of XYY in the general population is 1/100, suggesting that having an extra Y chromosome may have predisposed these men to increased aggressive behaviour.

Question 87

What did Court-Brown conclude about those with XYY?

Answer 87

They would be best kept hospitalised due to an increase likelihood of aggressive behaviour.

Question 88

What did Milunsky (2004) find on XYY Karotype?

Answer 88

That although XYY people are on average taller than the general population, there is no evidence of increased aggression.

Question 89

What did Ratcliffe et al (1994) find on XYY Karotype?

Answer 89

That they did not have a higher than average testosterone levels.

Question 90

What study did Rutter et al (1990) do on genetic explanations for aggression?

Answer 90

Carried out a meta-analysis of twin studies on criminality and found that:Dizygotic twins have concordance rates between 13-22%Monzygotic Twins have concordance rates between 26-51 %

Question 91

What do twin studies suggest about the causes of aggression?

Answer 91

The differences beween dizygotic twins, who grew up in the same environment is likely due to genetics. BUt as monozygotic twins do not show a 100% concordance rate it cannot just be genetics.

Question 92

What study did Mednick, Gabrielli &Hutchings (1987) do on genetic explanations for aggression?

Answer 92

They studied the criminal records of all Danish children adopted outside their biological family between 1924 and 1947. They found that having a criminal biological father increased the risk of criminality, but the highest risk was for those with a criminal biological father and a criminal adoptive father.

Question 93

What is the problem with heritability studies?

Answer 93

They studied criminality, rather than aggressiveness and not all crime is violent. IN fact Mednick et all reported that the largest effect in their study was for non violent crime.

Question 94

What did Dmitri Belyaev (1950) do?

Answer 94

Tried to reduce the silver fox to make them esier to breed; found that after 18 generations the animals were tame. The silver fox breeding programme was also able to breed extremely vicious silver foxes.

Question 95

What did Cairnes (1983) do on genetic explanations for aggression?

Answer 95

Found it is possible to breed highly aggressive male and female mice, but this aggressiveness only occurred during mid life.

Question 96

Why are mice often used in genetic studies?

Answer 96

Because their genes are homologous to those of humans, meaning they produce the same proteins, which are used in a similar way.

Question 97

What is the MAO-A gene?

Answer 97

Associated with increased aggression. It produces monoamine oxidase, a chemical that is involved int he breakdown of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine in synapses.

Question 98

Why is the MAO-A thought to influence aggression?

Answer 98

It is thought that having too little of the MAO-A gene leads to the brain being flooded with too much serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, which eventually leads to a lowered sensitivity to these neurotransmitters. Low sensitivity is equivalent to low activity.

Question 99

What study did Moffat et al (2002) do on genetic explanations for aggression?

Answer 99

Conducted a longitudinal study of 422 males in New Zealand. He studied their history of abuse and criminal convictions, their penchant for violence and any symptoms of antisocial personality disorder. His findings showed that there was a link between MAO-A and the risk of being convicted of a violent crime, but only when participants also suffered abuse as children.

Question 100

Why was XYY Karotype thought to increase aggression in the 1960-70s?

Answer 100

A popular theory was that males who have inherited an extra Y chromosome are more ‘male’ and therefore more aggressive. However, this has been shown to be incorrect.

Question 101

What is cuckoldry?

Answer 101

A man may unwittingly invest resources in rearing children that are not his own

Question 102

What is direct guarding?

Answer 102

Restricting a partner’s movements

Question 103

What are negatives inducements?

Answer 103

Financial control, threat of violence is they are unfaithful or even so much as look at another man

Question 104

What is uxorocide?

Answer 104

Wife killing

Question 105

What is sexual coercion?

Answer 105

Partner rape

Question 106

What is jealousy?

Answer 106

Emotional response to anticipated loss of affection and/or status

Question 107

What is infidelity?

Answer 107

Unfaithfulness of sexual partners.

Question 108

What is often cited as the cause of violence in interpersonal relationships?

Answer 108

Male sexual jealousy as a result of real or suspected infidelity.

Question 109

What did Daly and Wilson find about domestic abuse?

Answer 109

Verbal aggression and non-lethal physical violence against mates is often similar in men and women, but spousal homicide by women is less frequent and often due to defense against a jealous abusive husband. Young wives/girlfriends are also more likely to be killed them older ones.

Question 110

What did Guttmacher (1955) find about domestic abuse?

Answer 110

In a study of 36 Baltimore spousal homicides, 25 were attributed to jealousy and the wives were the victims in 24 of these cases

Question 111

What did Hilberman and Munson (1978) find about domestic abuse?

Answer 111

In a study of battered women, 57/60 attributed the violence to their husband’s extreme jealousy and possessiveness.

Question 112

What did Whitehurst (1971) find about domestic abuse?

Answer 112

In 100 cases of spousal violence, the husbands’ frustration over their inability to control their wives and accusations of infidelity were the most reported causal factors.

Question 113

What do evolutionary psychologists propose as an explanation to sexual jealousy and the resulting violence?

Answer 113

A man can never be certain that he is the father of his wife’s children unless he prevents her having relationships with other men. This can explain why male sexual jealousy is often cited as a cause of domestic violence. Therefore men are always at risk of cuckoldry. The adaptive functions of sexual jealousy would be to deter a mate from sexual infidelity.

Question 114

What did Buss (1988) suggests about mate retention and violence?

Answer 114

That males have a number of strategies that have evolved specifically for the purpose of keeping a mate. These include:1. Restricting their partners autonomy (direct guarding)2. Negative inducements in the form of violence or threats of violence to prevent her from strayingThose who are perceived by their partner to be threatening infidelity are more at risk of violence than those who are not.

Question 115

What did Dobash and Dobash (1984) find about domestic abuse?

Answer 115

That the majority of cases of battered women cite extreme jealousy as the key cause of violence towards them.

Question 116

What did Daly et al (1982) find about domestic violence?

Answer 116

That male sexual jealousy is claimed to be the single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes in the US

Question 117

What did Dell (1984) find about domestic violence?

Answer 117

That 17% of all cases of murder in the UK are linked to sexual jealousy.

Question 118

What was found in a summary of eight studies of same sex killings involving love triangles?

Answer 118

They found that 92% were male-male murders and only 8% female-female murders.

Question 119

What was the aim of Shakelford et al (2005) study on aggression in relation to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 119

To investigate male retention strategies with married couples.

Question 120

What was the method of Shakelford et al (2005) study on aggression in relation to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 120

A survey method, with a sample of 461 men and 560 women in the USA. Male participants answered questions about their use of mate retention techniques, and were assessed on how often they performed each of 26 different types of violent act against their partners. Female PP answered questions concerning their partner’s use of retention techniques.

Question 121

What was the results of Shakelford et al (2005) study on aggression in relation to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 121

Men’s use of intersexual negative inducements and direct guarding was positively correlated with their violence scores. Use of emotional manipulation as a specific tactic appeared to consistently predict men’s violence against women. Female results confirmed this trend. Females reported that those who used mate retention strategies were most likely to use violence. Age of relationship made no different.

Question 122

What was the conclusion of Shakelford et al (2005) study on aggression in relation to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 122

There findings are consistent with the claim of evolutionary psychology that mate retention strategies are evoked when a particular adaptive problem is faced, in this case the belief that the wife in unfaithful.

Question 123

What did Takahashi et al (2006) find about aggression in relation to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 123

Used brain imaging techniques to investigate the activity in the amygdala and hypothalamus whilst subjects imagined scenes depicting sexual infidelity and emotional jealousy. They found that men much greater activity when presented with scenes depicting sexual infidelity in their mate.

Question 124

In what ways could aggressive behaviour be seen as adaptive?

Answer 124

Gain territory and resources Defending against attacks: aggression to prevent loss of resources and status necessary for reproductive fitness iInflicting cost on same sex-rivals: aggression between same sex members to aid in the competition for resources and mates Negotiating status and power hierarchies: aggression to gain prestige and dominance among same-sex members Deterring rivals from future aggression: aggression to maintain dominance and fear in othersDeterring mates from infidelity: aggression against opposite-sex members to maintain fidelity of desired long-term mates and ensuring paternity

Question 125

Why is a male more likely to be aggressively jealous?

Answer 125

HUman males cannot risk wasting investment on offspring who are not their own so they should show more jealous violent aggression relating to female fidelity.

Question 126

Why might a female be aggressively jealous to a partner?

Answer 126

If a male is unfaithful the female partner risks losing his time, resources, energy, protection and commitment to her children.

Question 127

What did Daly and Wilson find about male-male aggression?

Answer 127

Cross-culturally, human violent aggression and homicide is far more common in males, against other males. Homicide is more common in poor and unmarried men than richer, married ones.

Question 128

What did Buss and Dedden (1990) find about female-female aggression?

Answer 128

It is more verbal against other women to maintain status and reduce the attractiveness of competitors, especially by using verbal criticism of the physical unattractiveness of other females and their promiscuity to lower their appeal in the eyes of men.

Question 129

What did Daly et al (1982) find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 129

The detection or suspicion of infidelity is a key predictor of partner violence.

Question 130

What did Goetz et al (2008) find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 130

That a consequence of men’s perception or suspicions of their wives sexual infidelity is partner rape.

Question 131

What did Camilleri (2004) find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 131

That sexual assault of a female by a male partner was directly linked with the perceived risk of her infidelity.

Question 132

What did Sheilds and Hanneke (1983) find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 132

Found that female victims of partner rape were more likely to have engaged in extra-marital sex.

Question 133

According to evolutionary psychology what is the purpose of violence towards pregnant partners?

Answer 133

When a women is pregnant with another man’s child then the purpose of violence is to terminate the pregnancy and therefore eliminate potential offspring and also leave her free to bear offspring for him.

Question 134

According to evolutionary psychology how can men guard against their partner’s infidelity?

Answer 134

1. Providing benefits to the women, money, housing etc. 2. Use violence or threats of violenceHowever this could result in the unintended outcome of death.

Question 135

What did Camilleri & Quinsey (2009) find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 135

Men convicted of raping their partners were more likely to have experienced cuckoldry risks prior to their offence compared to men convicted of non-sexual partner abuse.

Question 136

What did Burch and Gallup (2004) find about violence towards pregnant partners?

Answer 136

That frequency of violent acts towards pregnant mates was roughly double than towards those who were not pregnant, with sexual jealousy characterising those who committed violence against their pregnant partners.

Question 137

What did Taillieue and Brownride (2010) find about violence towards pregnant partners?

Answer 137

Found that women abused while pregnant were more likely to be carrying the child of a man other than her current mate

Question 138

What did Valladares et al (2005) find about violence towards pregnant partners?

Answer 138

Nicaraguan study found that half of the sample of pregnant women physically abused by their partners had suffered blows directed at their stomachs to increase the probability of an abortion.

Question 139

What are the limitations of evolutionary explanations of partner violence?

Answer 139

Cannot explain why different people react in different ways to the same problem. Androcentric- women also use mate retention strategies and behave violentlyThere are cultural difference in uxoricide rates and the degree of anxiety felt in response to infidelityDoes it justify violence? ReductionistDeterminist

Question 140

Why could it be argued that the evolutionary explanation is not gender biased?

Answer 140

The evolutionary explanation account for male and female differences in their experiences of infidelity and jealousy as due to different selective pressures.

Question 141

What does the power-threat hypothesis state?

Answer 141

That groups which pose a threat to the majority are more likely to be discriminated against and subjected to violent action, such as lycning.

Question 142

What does Sosis (2004) believe about the costly signalling theory?

Answer 142

That engaging in a painful religious ritual has been favoured by natural selection as it signals commitment to membership, and deters people who are not true believers joining these groups.

Question 143

What is considered to be the adaptive value of warfare?

Answer 143

. TerritoryGenocide (removal of competition)Mating success (status)Kin selection

Question 144

What did Chagnon observe about warfare?

Answer 144

Naturalistic observation of the Yanomamo tribe in the Amazon rainforest, frequent fighting between villages over abduction of women. Success in battle lead to high status, so successful warriors had more wives and children. Young men who had not killed were arely married.

Question 145

What did Pinker (1997) find about warfare?

Answer 145

In WW2 Germans raped women in concentration camps.

Question 146

What did Divale and Harris (1976) find about aggressive displays?

Answer 146

That displays of aggressiveness and bravery are attractive to females

Question 147

What did Chagnon (1988) find about aggressive displays?

Answer 147

That male warriors in traditional socieites tend to have more sexual partners and more children suggesting a direct reproductive benefit.

Question 148

What could be the benefit of costly displays of aggression?

Answer 148

Signals of commitment- displays such as scars and mutilations mean commitment to the group, and minimises the likelihood of males absconding to another group.

Question 149

What is the problem with the view that warfare is evolutionary adaptive?

Answer 149

In recent human history, prolonged warfare results in significant losses on both sides, which could suggest that warfare is actually maladaptive. Does not explain astonishing levels of cruelty in war. It can’t be ‘in the genes’ as we only adapted to fight when we were no longer nomadic and we were protecting our ‘site’.

Question 150

What did Palmer and Tilley (1995) find about aggressive displays?

Answer 150

Male gang members have more sexual partners than normal males

Question 151

What could be the adaptive value of sports events?

Answer 151

1. Success in sports can be linked to status and therefore greater potential access to resources2. For the fans this is affiliation with a dominant group and superiority over subordinate groups, a greater place in social hierarcy, and being more attractive by proxy.

Question 152

How could aggression in sport events be seen as adaptive?

Answer 152

Aggression is linked with victory in some team sports and as such a display of real or ritualised aggression may increase chances of victory either physical dominance or intimidation. Even in minimial contact sports, teams ‘sledge’ or ‘psych out’ t heir opponents to gain the upper hand.

Question 153

What did Maxwell & Viscek (2009) find about aggression in sports event?

Answer 153

Questioned 144 rugby union players about their aggression in the game. Those high in professionalism placed more emphasis on winning and were more likely to use unsanctioned aggression.

Question 154

What did Cialdini et al (1976) find about aggression in sports events?

Answer 154

“basking in reflected glory”- after a uni football team had performed well, students more likely to wear uni scarves and sweaters.

Question 155

How could sport events be territorial?

Answer 155

Statistically speaking, sport teams playing at home win more than when they play away. When hooliganism in football was at it’s highest, a common feature of it would be for away fans to go to the town/city early and to ‘take’ opposition fans traditional areas (like a pub near the ground)

Question 156

What is xenophobia?

Answer 156

An irrational or unreasoned fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange.

Question 157

How can xenophobia manifest?

Answer 157

itself in many ways involving the relations and perceptions of an ingroup towards an outgroup (us and them), including a fear of losing identity, suspicion of its activities, aggression, and desire to eliminate its presence to secure a presumed purity

Question 158

What did Wilson (1975) claim about xenophobia?

Answer 158

Xenophobia appears in “virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisation.” It’s a form of natural selection.

Question 159

What did MacDonald (1992) find about xenophobia?

Answer 159

Claimed that it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders which acts to increase ‘in group’ cohesion.

Question 160

What did Shaw & Wong argue about xenophobia?

Answer 160

That mechanisms that prompt suspicion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. This would have enabled our ancesters to avoid attack and leave behind more offspring.

Question 161

What did Podaliri & Balestri find about zenophobia?

Answer 161

found evidence in sports events to suggest such Xenophobic responses are evident in human beings also: particularly in the behaviour of Italian football crowds. From the end of the 1980’s, xenophobic political organisations such as the Northern League in Italy had led to the growth of extreme right-wing movements with racist chants and openly anti-Semitic banners.

Question 162

What did Foldesi (1996) find about xenophobic displays?

Answer 162

Racist conduct of a core of extremist supported led to increase of spectators’ violence in general. Gypsies, Jews and Russians were the usual targets.

Question 163

What did Lewis et al (2005) find about sport events?

Answer 163

football fans felt that crowd support contributed to the home advantage. Fans felt responsible and took credit for distracting opponents. However it is unclear whether the size of the crowd impacts or whether the outcome is a result of ‘psyching up’ the home team or distracting the away team.

Question 164

What did Moore and Brylinksky (1993) find about sport events?

Answer 164

Studied 11 US basketball games which had no crowds/spectators due to a measles outbreak, comparing them with matches observed by crowds. Both teams actually scored higher without the presence of a crowd, suggesting the crowd does not always have a positive influence on the team’s performance.

Question 165

What is the problems with xenophobia as an explanation for group display?

Answer 165

Most sport crowds are not aggressive, and not all sports have a hooligan problem.

Question 166

What did Marsh (1978) say about football hooliganism?

Answer 166

That it is the human equivalent of “ceremonial conflict” in animals. Exclusively male, ritualised symbolic aggression restrained by desire to minimise harm and death, thus more adaptive than warfare. Intention is to humiliate opposition and secure submission and/or dominance and higher status.

Question 167

What is the social dominance theory based on?

Answer 167

begins with the idea that human societies are organised into hierarchical groups with mechanisms to keep those hierarchies in place, consisting of dominant and subordinate groups. DOminant groups enjoy money, health, status, happiness, political power etc.

Question 168

What does the social dominance theory say?

Answer 168

Age: adults and middle-age people have disproportionate social power over children and younger adults.Gender: Males have disproportionate social power over females (patriarchy)Arbitrary-set: socially constructed and highly salient groups based on characteristics such as religion, clan, ethnicity, nation, race, caste.

Question 169

What did Bandura and Walters suggest about traditional learning theory and aggression?

Answer 169

They believed that aggression could not be explained using traditional learning theory where only direct experience was seen as responsible for the acquistion of new behaviours.

Question 170

What does social learning theory say about aggression?

Answer 170

It suggests that alongside direct experience, we also learn by observing others. We learn the specifics of aggressive behaviour (e.g. the forms it takes, how often it is enacted, the situations that produce it and the targets towards it is directed. A person’s biological make up creates a potential for aggression, and it is the actual expression of aggression that is learned.

Question 171

According to SLT how does observation affect behaviour?

Answer 171

They learn the behaviours through observation, and learn whether the behaviours are worth repeating through vicarious reinforcement.

Question 172

What did Bandura claim must happen in order for social learning to take place?

Answer 172

A child must form mental representations of events in their social environment, and represent possible rewards and punishments for their aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcome. The child will only display the learned behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.

Question 173

What two things increase the likliehood of the production of aggresive behaviour?

Answer 173

1. Maintenance through direct experience2. Self-efficacy expectancies

Question 174

What is the effect of maintenace through direct experience in SLT?

Answer 174

If a child is rewarded for a behaviour, they are more likely to repeat the action in similar situations in the future.

Question 175

What is the effect of self-efficacy expectancies in SLT?

Answer 175

In addition to forming expectancies of the likely outcomes of aggression, children may also develop confidence in their ability to carry out necessary aggressive actions. Children for whom this form of behaviour has been particularly disastrous in the past have less confidence (lower sense of self-efficacy_ in their ability to use aggression successfully to resolve conflicts, and therefore may turn to other means.

Question 176

Who were the participants in Bandura’s Bobo doll studies?

Answer 176

Male and female children ranging from three to five years. half were exposed to adult models interacting aggressively with a life sized inflatable Bobo doll and half exposed to models that were non-aggressive towards the doll.

Question 177

How did the aggressive model act in Bandura’s Bobo doll studies?

Answer 177

The model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts toward the doll, e.g. striking it on the head with the mallet and kicking it about the room, accompanied by verbal aggression such as saying ‘POW.”

Question 178

What happened to the participants following exposure to the model in Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies?

Answer 178

Following exposure to the model, children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with. They were then taken to the room where, among other toys, there was a bobo doll.

Question 179

What was the result of Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies?

Answer 179

Children in the aggression condition reproduced a good deal of physical and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model. About 1/3 of them repeated the model’s verbal responses, while none of the children in the non-aggressive group made such remarks. Boys reproduced more imitative physical aggression than girls, but they did not differ in their imitation of verbal aggression

Question 180

What did Bandura and Walters’ find about SLT in later Bobo doll studies?

Answer 180

Found that children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts showed high levels of aggression in their own play. Those who saw the model punished showed a low level of aggression in their play, whilst thsoe in the no-reward, no-punishemtn group were somewhere in between these two levels of aggression- vicarious learning.

Question 181

How did Bandura study the role of punishment in later Bobo doll studies?

Answer 181

He repeated the study, but now, after exposure to the model, he offered rewards to all the children for performing the model’s aggressive behaviour. In this case, all three groups (punishment, reward, control) performed a similar number of imitative acts. This shows the learning does take place regardless of reinforcements but that production of behaviours is related to selective reinforcement.

Question 182

How did Bandura respond to the criticism that his studies focused on aggression towards a roll rather than a real person?

Answer 182

Bandura produced a film of a young woman beating up a live clown. When the children went into the other room, there was the live clown! They proceeded to punch him, kick him, hit him with hammers, and so on.

Question 183

What did Phillips find about the applicability of SLT to adults?

Answer 183

Found that daily homicide rates int eh US almost always increased in the week following a major boxing match, suggesting that viewers were imitating behaviour they watched that that SLT is evident in adults as well as children.

Question 184

What is the culture of violence theory?

Answer 184

(Wolfgang and Ferracuti) proposed that in large societies, some subcultures develop norms that sanction violence to a greater degree than the dominant culture. Some cultures may emphasise and model non-aggressive behaviour, producing individuals that show low levels of aggression.

Question 185

How can SLT explain individual differences in aggressie behaviour?

Answer 185

Supports cultural differences, and suggests that differences within individuals can be related to selective reinforcement and context-dependent learning. People respond differently in different situations because they have observed that aggression i rewared in some situations and not others.

Question 186

What is the support for SLT?

Answer 186

-Explains cultural differences-Explains aggressive behaviour in the absence of direct reinforcment (vicarious reinforcement)-Bobo Doll studies, Phillips

Question 187

What are the weaknesses of SLT?

Answer 187

-Ethical issues in exposing children to aggression (protection of participants), thus makes it difficult to test and therefore establish the scientific credibility of the theory-Children may have been aware of what was expected of them (demand characteristics).- See Noble

Question 188

How did Noble criticise Bandura’s bobo doll studies?

Answer 188

They report that one child arriving at the lab for the experiment said: “Look mummy, there’s the doll we have to hit” (Demand characteristics)

Question 189

What is the deindivuation theory?

Answer 189

Zimbardo introduced the theory of deindividuation, whereby people, when part of a relatively anonymous group, lose their personal identity and hence their inhibitions about violence. Deindivudation theory has been used as an explanation of the collective behaviour of violent crowds, mindless hooligans and social atrocities, such as genocide.

Question 190

What is deindividuation theory based on?

Answer 190

The classic crowd theory of Gustave Le Bon, who described how an individual was transformed when part of a crowd. He claimed that, in a crowd, the combination of anonymity, suggestibility and contagion mean that a ‘collective mind’ takes possesion of the individual. Thus, the individual loses self-control and becomes capable of acting in a way that goes against personal or social norms.

Question 191

What is deindivudation?

Answer 191

A psychological state characterised by lowered self-evaluation and decreased concerns about evaluation by others.

Question 192

What are the factors that contribute to deindivuation according to ZImbardo?

Answer 192

Anonymity, and altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol.

Question 193

What did Zimbardo point out about deindividuation states?

Answer 193

That it may also lead to an increase in prosocial behaviour (crows at music festivals, and large religious gatherings etc.)

Question 194

What did Zimbardo say happens when you become part of a crowd?

Answer 194

It can diminish awareness of our own individuality. n a large crowd, each person is faceless and anonymess- the larger the group, the greater the anonymity. There is a diminished fear of negative evaluation of actions and a reduced sense of guilt

Question 195

What study did Zimbardo do on deindivuation?

Answer 195

Groups of four female undergraduates were required to deliver electric shocks to another student to ‘aid learning’. Half wore bulky lab coats and hoods, addressed as a group when given instructions, never referred to be name, and not introduced to each other, whilst the other half wore normal clothing with large name tags, were given instructions individually, and were introduced to each other by name. Participants in the deindividuation condition shocked ‘the learner’ for twice as long as did identifiable participants.

Question 196

What did Rehm et al study about deindividuation and anonymity?

Answer 196

Randomly assigned German schoolchildren to handball teams of five, half the teams wearing the same orange shirts, and the other half their normal clothes. The children wearing orange (who were harder to tell apart) played the game consistently more aggressively than the children in everyday clothes.

Question 197

What did Mullen find about deindivudation and anonymity?

Answer 197

Analysed newspaper cuttings of sixty lynchings in the United States between 1899-1946. Found that the more people there were in the mob, the greater the savagery with which they killed their victims.

Question 198

What does Prentice-Dunn et al suggest about deindividuation and anonymity?

Answer 198

They claim that it is reduced self-awareness, rather than simply anonymity, that leads to deindividuation. If an individual is self-focused, the tend to focus on, and act according to, their internalised attitudes and moral stands, thus reducing antisocial behaviour. If the individual submegers themselves within a group, they may lose this focus, becoming less privately self-aware and therefore less able to regulate their own behaviour.

Question 199

What did Cannavale et al find about deindividuation and gender bias?

Answer 199

Found that male and female groups responded differently under deindivudation conditions reflecting a gender bias in the theory. An increase in aggression was obtained only in the all-male groups.

Question 200

What did Diener et al find about deindividuation and gender bias?

Answer 200

Found greater disinhibition of aggression (i.e. removal of the normal inhibitions concerning aggression) in males.

Question 201

What did Mann use the concept of deindividuation to explain?

Answer 201

“The baiting crowd.”

Question 202

What did Mann study on deinvidiuation?

Answer 202

Analysed 21 suicide leaps reported in US newspapers in the 60s and 70s, and found that in 10/21 cases where a crowd had gathered to watch, baiting had occured. These incidents tended to occur at night, when the crowd was large, and some distance from the person being taunted (especially when the ‘jumper’ was high above them) All these features were likely to produce a state of deindividuation in the members of the crowd.

Question 203

What did Robert Watson find about deindividuation and cultural differences?

Answer 203

Collected data on the extent to which warriors in 23 societies changed their appearance prior to going to war, and the extent to which they killed, tortured or multilated their victims. Those societies where warriors changed their appearnce were more destructive towards their victims compared to those who did not change their appearance.

Question 204

What did Johnson and Downing find about deindividuation and the importance of local group norms?

Answer 204

They replicated Zimbardo’s nurse experiment, but this time participants were made anonymous by means of a mask and overalls (like KKK), or by means of nurses’ uniforms. Participants shocked more than a control condition when dressed in KKK uniforms, but actually shocked less than the controls when dressed as nurses. The finding suggests that people respond to normative cues associated with the social context in which they find themselves.

Question 205

Why did Johnson and Downing criticise ZImbardo’s view of deindividuation?

Answer 205

They explored the idea that rather than deindividuation automatically increasing the incidence of aggression, any behaviour produced could be a product of local group norms

Question 206

What study did Postmes and Spears do on deindivuation?

Answer 206

They did a meta-analysis of 60 studies of deindividuation, and concluded that there is insufficient support of the major claims of the theory. Found that disihbition and antisocial behaviour are not more common in large groups and anonymous settings. Nor was there much evidence that deindividuation is associated with reduced self-awareness, or that reduced self-awareness increases aggressive behaviour.

Question 207

What did Spivey and Prentic-Dunn find about deindividuation?

Answer 207

Found it could lead to either prosocial or antisocial behaviour depending on situation factors. When prosocial environmental cues were present (such as a prosocial model), deindividuated participants performed significantly more altruistic acts (giving money) and significantly fewer antisocial acts (giving electric shocks) compared to a control group.

Question 208

What did Francis et al find about online deindividuation?

Answer 208

Adolescents reported feeling significantly more comfortable seeking help with mental health problems under the deindivuated circumstances of internet chatrooms compared to the individuatied circumstances of a personal appointment with a health professional.

Question 209

What is interpersonal aggression?

Answer 209

Involves direct actions against a specific individual and is restricted to a specific place and time.

Question 210

What is institutional aggression?

Answer 210

It may occur within groups or institutions, such as the armed forces, prisons or mental institutions, or between different groups.

Question 211

What did Irwin and Cressey argue about aggression within prisons? (the importation model)

Answer 211

Claim that prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison, and this influences their adaption to the prison environment. Irwin and Cressey argue that prisoners are not ‘blank states’ when they enter prison, and that many of the normative systems developed on the outside world would be imported into the prison (importation model)

Question 212

What did Allender and Marcell find about aggression within prisons?

Answer 212

Found that gang members disproportionately engage in acts of prison violence.

Question 213

What did Huff find about aggression within prisons?

Answer 213

Found that gang members in the US were ten times more likely to commit a murder and three times more likely to assual someone in public than were non-gang members of a similar age and background.

Question 214

What does the deprivation model argue about aggression within prisons?

Answer 214

Agues that prisoner aggression is the product of the stressful and oppressive conditions of the institutions itself (Paterline and Paterson). This includes crowding, assumed to increase fear and frustration levels, and staff experience.

Question 215

What did Hodgkinson et al find about the deprivation model and institutional aggression?

Answer 215

Found that trainee nurses are more likely to suffer violent assault than experienced nurses

Question 216

What did Davies and Burgess find about the deprivation model and institutional aggression?

Answer 216

Found that in prison setting, length of service was also a significant factor, with more experienced officers being less likely to suffer an assault

Question 217

How did Sykes explain the pains of imprisonment and institutional aggression?

Answer 217

He described the specific deprivations that inmates experience within prison and which might be linked to an increase in violence. These included the loss of liberty, the loss of autonomy and the loss of security. Inmates may cope with the pains of imprisonment in several ways. Some choose to withdraw through seclusion in their cell or living space, whereas others choose to rebel in the form of violence against other prisoners or staff.

Question 218

What did Sykes find about the deprivation model and institutional aggression?

Answer 218

Found that the potential threat to personal security increased anxiety levels in inmates, even if the majority of prisoners posed no significant threat to them.

Question 219

What did Staub claim were the stages in the process of genocide?

Answer 219

1. Difficult social conditions, leading to…2. Scapegoating of a less powerful group, leading to…3. Negative evaluation and dehumanisation of the target group, leading to…4. Moral values and rules becoming inapplicable, and the killing begins5. The passivity of bystanders (e.g. the UN) enhances the process

Question 220

What can institution also refer to?

Answer 220

A whole section of society, defined by ethnicity, religion or some other significant feature.

Question 221

What did Milgram believe the holocaust was primarily the result of?

Answer 221

It was the result of situational pressures that forced Nazi soldiers to obey their leaders regardless of any personal moral repugnance.

Question 222

What did Wilson find about the deprivation model and institutional aggression?

Answer 222

Reasoned that if most violence occurs in environments that are hot, noisy, and overcrowded, then this could be avoided by reducing these factors. He set up two units for violent prisoners that were less claustrophobic, and gave a view to outside, and typical prison-life noise was reduced and masked by music from a local radio station. Temperature was lowered so that it was no longer stiflingly hot. These changes virtually eradicated assaults on prison staff and inmates, but political pressure prevented it from becoming commonplace.

Question 223

What does Wilson claim about xenophobia?

Answer 223

That xenophobia has been documented in “virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisation

Question 224

What is xenophobia?

Answer 224

A fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners

Question 225

What do Shaw and Wong say about xenophobia?

Answer 225

Argue that the mechanisms that prompt suspicion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. This would have enabled our ancestors to avoid attack and so leave behind more offspring

Question 226

What does Macdonald say about xenophobia?

Answer 226

Suggests that from an evolutionary perspective it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders, as the over perception of threat is less costly than it’s underperceptiob

Question 227

What did Podaliri and Balestri find about xenophobia on the terraces?

Answer 227

Found evidence of xenophobic tendencies in their analysis of the group displays of Italian football crowds. In the 1980s xenophobic political organisations such as the Northern League led to the growth of extreme right-wing movements characterised by racist chants and openly anti-Semitic banners

Question 228

What did Huntingford and Turner find about territoriality?

Answer 228

That territorial behaviour is common in many animal species, which typically show threat displays toward outsiders and attack with greater vigour when defending a home territory

Question 229

How are territorial displays seen in sport?

Answer 229

Aggressive displays of sports team prior to a match suck as the Hakka

Question 230

What did Neave and Wolfson find about territorial behaviour in sport?

Answer 230

Found that football teams playing at home were far more likely to win than the visiting team partly because they had a benefit of a huge surge in restoring before a match, which did not occur before away games. Team members who subjectively felt that the burden of ‘defending the territory’ lay with then had higher levels of testosterone . They believed this could be due to an evolved drive to defend home territory

Question 231

What ways can you explain aggressive group displays in sport?

Answer 231

-xenophobia-territoriality including threat displays and testosterone and territorial behaviour.

Question 232

What did Foldesi find about xenophobic displays?

Answer 232

Found that the racist conduct in extremist supporters among Hungarian football crowds led to an increase of spectators violence in general, and xenophobic outbursts in particular. Violent incidents based on racist or xenophobic attitudes were observed at all stadia, with gypsies, Jews and Russians the usual targets

Question 233

What did Lewis et al find about territoriality?

Answer 233

Found that, among football fans, crowd support was rated as the most significant factor contributing to home advantage. Through their displays f support, fans felt responsible for inspiring their team to victory and took credit for distracting opponents

Question 234

What did Moore and Brylinksy find about territoriality and sports?

Answer 234

A measles epidemic resulted in a quarantine that caused 11 American basketball games for two teams to be played without spectators. There was no significant difference between performance with and without spectators suggesting that displays of support from home crowds did not increase the performance of the teams.

Question 235

What did Pollard and Pollard find about territoriality and sport?

Answer 235

That a home advantage still could be seen to operate even with very small crowds

Question 236

Why is serotonin thought to reduce aggression?

Answer 236

By inhibiting the amygdaloid and therefore the responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response

Question 237

What have low levels of serotonin in the brain been linked to?

Answer 237

Increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide

Question 238

What study did Mann et al do on neural explanation for aggression?

Answer 238

Have 35 healthy subjects dexflenfluamine which us known to deplete serotonin. Using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, they found that dexflenfluamine treatment in males (but not females) was associated with an increase In hostility and aggression scores

Question 239

What did Raleigh et al find on neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 239

Using vervet monkeys found that those on high tryptophan diets (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of aggression and vice versa

Question 240

What did Popova et al find on neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 240

Showed that animals bred for domestication and docile temperaments show increased levels of serotonin over times

Question 241

What did Bond find on neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 241

Established in clinical trials that antidepressant which elevate serotonin actually reduce irritability and impulsive aggression

Question 242

What is an alternative theory to low levels of serotonin as a cause of aggression?

Answer 242

Low serotonin metabolism (the ability to recycle serotonin at te synaptic cleft), which in turn leads to developing a greater number of serotonin receptors.

Question 243

What did Arora and Meltzer find about neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 243

Research has found that victims of violent suicide had increased numbers of serotonin receptors in te prefrontal cortex.

Question 244

What did Badawy find about neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 244

Found a link between alcohol consumption which interferes with the metabolism of serotonin in the brain and aggressive behaviour. However this is correlational and other factors such as increased alcohol consumption due to depression confuse the matter

Question 245

How is dopamine thought to be associated with aggression?

Answer 245

The link between dopamine and aggression is not well established but it is thought that increases in dopamine will produce an increase in aggressive behaviour.

Question 246

What did Lavine find about neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 246

Increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have also been associated with aggressive behaviour

Question 247

What did Buitelaar find about neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 247

Antipsychotics, which reduce dopamine activity in the brain, have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents

Question 248

What did Couppis and Kennedy find about neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 248

Found that in mice, a reward pathway in the brain becomes engaged in response to an aggressive event, which dopamine is involved as a positive reinforcer. Individuals will seek out an aggressive encounter to receive a rewarding sensation.

Question 249

How is testosterone thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 249

It is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood onwards due to it’s action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression.

Question 250

What did Dabbs et al find in hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 250

Salivary testosterone from violent and non-violent criminals. Violent criminals had higher testosterone levels

Question 251

What did Lindman et al find about hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 251

Young males who were aggressive when drink had higher testosterone levels than those who did not act aggressive

Question 252

What did Albert et al find about testosterone as an explanation for aggression?

Answer 252

There is inconsistent evidence. Some studies show a positive correlation and others show no relationship.

Question 253

What did Mazur say about testosterone and aggression?

Answer 253

Distinguished between aggression and dominance. In humans the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely I be expressed in more varied and subtle ways.

Question 254

How is cortisol thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 254

It appears to have a mediating effect on other aggression-related hormones such as testosterone

Question 255

What did Dabbs et al find about hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 255

Cortisol increases anxiety and therefore inhibits aggression and increases social withdrawal

Question 256

What did Virkkunen find about hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 256

Low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders

Question 257

What did Tennes and Kreye find about hormonal explanations for aggression?

Answer 257

Low levels if cortisol in violent schools children

Question 258

What are the four conditions necessary for social learning?

Answer 258

1. Attention: the individual noticed something in their environment 2. Retention: the individual remembers what they have observed3. Motor reproduction: the individual replicates the behaviour shown by the model 4. Motivation: the individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed

Question 259

What are the two types of models in social learning?

Answer 259

1. Live models- physically present in our environment 2. Symbolic models- people in films, books, cartoons

Question 260

What did Patterson et al find on social learning?

Answer 260

Demonstrated that role models are important in the development of anti-social behaviour and that parents are the most important role models. Found that very aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection, and little positive feedback

Question 261

What did Takahashi et al find about aggression and male sexual jealousy?

Answer 261

Used brain imagining techniques to investigate activity in the amygdala and hypothalamus whilst subjects imagined scenes depicting sexual infidelity and emotional jealousy. Men showed greater activation in the amygdala and hypothalamus when presents with scenes depicting sexual infidelity in their partner. Physiological basis for jealousy based aggression.

Question 262

Who developed the social learning theory?

Answer 262

Bandura and Walters

Question 263

Why doesn’t social learning theory ignore biological factors?

Answer 263

A person’s biological make-up creates a potential for aggression and it is the actual expression of aggression that is learned.

Question 264

How does social learning theory differ from operant conditioning?

Answer 264

Whereas Skinner’s theory claimed that learning takes place through direct reinforcement, Bandura suggested that children learn just by observing role models with whom they indentify.

Question 265

Why is it difficult to test social learning theory?

Answer 265

It is difficult to test experimental hypothesizes about social learning of aggressive behaviour in children due to ethical issues concerning the need to protect participants from psychological and physical harm. Thus it is difficult to establish the scientific credibility of the theory by this means.

Question 266

What did Phllips find about social learning theory?

Answer 266

FOund that daily homicide rates in the US almost always increased in the week following a major boxing match, suggesting that viewers were imitating behaviour they watched and that social learning is evident in adults as well as children.

Question 267

Who developed the ‘culture of violence’ theory?

Answer 267

Wolfgang and Ferracuti

Question 268

What does the ‘culture of violence’ theory suggest?

Answer 268

Proposes that in large socieities, some subcultures develop norms that sanction violence to a greater degree than the dominant cultures.

Question 269

What are the strengths of social learning theory?

Answer 269

1. It can explain aggressive behaviour int he absense of direct reinforcement- Vicarious learning
2. Explains individual difference both between and within individuals; some cultures may emphasise and model non-aggressive behaviour, producing individuals that show low levels of aggression. Differences within individuals can be related to selective reinforcement and context-dependent learning i.e. they learn behaviours that are appropriate to particular contexts.

Question 270

How can social learning theory explain the low aggression rates of the !Kung San of the Kalahari Desert?

Answer 270

The child-rearing practices; when two children argue/fight parents neither reward nor punish them, but physically separate them and try to distract their attention onto other things. Second, parents do not use physical punishment and aggressive postures are avoided by adults and devalued by the society as a whole. The absence of direct reinforcement of aggressive behaviour as well as the absence of aggressive models means there is little opportunity or motivation for children to acquire aggressive behaviours.

Question 271

Who introduced the theory of deindividuation?

Answer 271

Zimbardo

Question 272

What does the theory of deindividuation say?

Answer 272

That people, when part of a relatively anonymous group, lose their personal identity and hence their inhibitions about violence.

Question 273

What study did Johnson and Downing do on deindividuation?

Answer 273

Repeated Zimbardo’s nurse study, but this time participants were made anonymous by means of a mask and overalls (reminiscent of the KKK) or by means of nurses’ uniforms. Participants shocked more than a control condition when dressed int he KKK uniforms, but actually shocked less than the controls when dressed as nurses. Suggest people respond to normative cues associated with the social context in which they find themselves.

Question 274

Who developed the importation model?

Answer 274

Irwin and Cressey

Question 275

Who developed the deprivation model?

Answer 275

Paterline and Peterson

Question 276

What are the explanations for institutional aggression within groups?

Answer 276

1. The Importation Model:
Interpersonal factors
Gang membership
2. The deprivation model
SItuation factors
THe pains of impresionment

Question 277

What are the explanations for aggression between group?

Answer 277

1. Dehumanisation

2. Obedience to authority.

Question 278

What is social dominance orientation?

Answer 278

A personality variable which predicts social and political attitues. People who are high in SDO endorse social hierarchies and inter-group inequality, and see the world as a ‘competitive jungle’.

Question 279

What did Esses et al fnd about dehumanisation?

Answer 279

Domonstrated that people high in social dominance orientation have a tendency to dehumanise outgroup members and in particular foreign refugees and asylum seekers.

Question 280

How does dehumanisation explain aggression between groups?

Answer 280

If the target group is dehumanised so that its members are seen as worthless animals and therefore not worhty of moral consideration.

Question 281

What did Harer and Steffensmeier find about institutional aggression?

Answer 281

Collected data from 58 US prisons and found that black inmates had significantly higher rates of violent behaviour but lower rates of alcohol-related and drug-related misconduct than white inmates. THese patterns parallel racial differences int hese behaviours in US society and so support the importation model.

Question 282

What did Delisi et al find about institutional aggression?

Answer 282

Challenge the claim that pre-prison gang membership predicts violence whilst in prison. THe found that inmates with prior street gang involvement were no more likely than other inmates to engage in prison violence.

Question 283

How may Delisi et al study on institutional aggression be explained?

Answer 283

By the fact that violent gang members tend to be isolated from the general inmate population, therefore greatly restricting their opportunities for violence.

Question 284

What did Fischer find about institutional aggression?

Answer 284

Found that isolating known gang members in a special management unit reduced the rates of serious assault by 50%.

Question 285

What did Mccorkle et al find about institutional aggression?

Answer 285

Found that overcrowding, lack of privacy and the lack of meaningful activity all significantly influence peer violence. However, research into this area is not sonsistent in its findings.

Question 286

What did Nijman et al find about institutional aggression?

Answer 286

Found that increased personal space failed to decrease the level of violent incidents among patients in a psychiatric institutions.

Question 287

What did Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando find about institutional aggression?

Answer 287

Found support for both the deprivation and importation models as explanations of prison violence. THey found that the deprivation model was better able to explain violence against prison staff, whereas the importation model was better able to explain violence against other inmates.

Question 288

WHat did Poole and Regoli find about institutional aggression?

Answer 288

Found that the best indicator of violence among juvenile offenders was pre-institutional violence regardless of any situational factors in the institution.

Question 289

What is the problem withh Staub’s stages in the process of genocide?

Answer 289

It emphasises the importance of bystander intervention in prevention bystanders, however, bystander intervention does not necessarily end institutional aggression, as there is an important difference between the effect of intervention on duration and on severity of violence. E.g. Rwanden genocide- 800,000 people in 100 days, with UN intervention

Question 290

What does Mandel argue about institutional aggression?

Answer 290

Rejects Milgram’s claims that obedience to authority was sufficient to explaint he behaviour of Holocaust perpetrators. He argues that Milgram’s acount is monocausal (ignores other possible causes) and simply does not match the historical record.

Question 291

What does Goldhagen argue about institutional aggression?

Answer 291

Suggests that the main causal factor int he Holocaust was a form of anti-Semitism so deeply entrenched in the GErman people at that time they they implicitly condoned the elimination of millions of innocent Jews.

Question 292

What are the neural mechanisms involved in aggression?

Answer 292

Serotonin and Dopamine

Question 293

What are the hormonal mechanisms involved in aggression?

Answer 293

Testosterone and cortisol

Question 294

What are neurotransmitters?

Answer 294

Chemicals that enable impulses within the brain to be transmitted from one area of the brain to another.

Question 295

How is serotonin thought to be linked to aggression?

Answer 295

Thought to reduce aggression by inhibiting responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response. Low levels of serotonin in the brain have been associated with an increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide.

Question 296

What study did Mann et al do on neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 296

Gave 35 healthy subjects dexflenfluramine, which is known to deplete serotonin. Using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, they found that dexflenflaumine treatment in males (but not females) was associated with an in crease in hostility and aggression scores.

Question 297

What has Lavine found about neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 297

That increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have been associated with increases in aggressive behaviours.

Question 298

What did Buitelaar find about neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 298

Antipsychotics, which reduce dopamine activity in the brain, have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents.

Question 299

What did Scerbo and Raine find about neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 299

A meta-analysis of 29 studies published before 1992 examined neuotransmitter levels in antisocial children and adults. Consistently found lower levels of serotonin in individuals described as being aggressive, but found no significant rise or fall in dopamine levels. Reduced levels of serotonin were particularly marked in those individuals who had attempted suicide. Suggests that serotonin repletion leads to impulsive behaviour, which in turn may lead to aggressive behaviour in various forms.

Question 300

What did Dabbs et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 300

Measured salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals. Those with the highest testosterone levels had a history of primarily violent crimes, whereas those with the lowest levels had committed only non-violent crimes.

Question 301

WHat did Lindman et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 301

Found that young males who behaved aggressively when drunk had higher testosterone levels than those who did not act aggressively.

Question 302

Who developed the challenge hypothesis?

Answer 302

Wingfield et al

Question 303

What does the challenge hypothesis propose?

Answer 303

THat in monogamous species, testosterone levels should only rise above the baseline breeding level in response to social challenges, such as male-male aggression or threats to status. In such situations, a testosterone surge is to be expected, with a consequent increase in aggression, provided the threat is deemeted relevant to reproductive competition.

Question 304

What did Dabbs et al find about cortisol?

Answer 304

Cortisol appears to have a mediating efect on other aggression-related hormones such as testosterone, possibly because it increases anxiety and the liklihood of social withdrawal.

Question 305

What did Virkkunen find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 305

Found low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders

Question 306

What did Tennes and Kreye find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 306

Found low levels of cortisol in violent schoolchildren.

Question 307

What did Archer find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 307

Analysed the results of 230 males over 5 studies and found a low positive correlation between testosterone and aggression.

Question 308

What did Book et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 308

A meta-analysis of 45 studies which established a mean correlation of 0.14 between testosterone and aggression.

Question 309

Why did Archer et al criticise Book et al study on hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 309

Claims that methodological problems with this study meant that a correlation of 0.08 was more appropraite.

Question 310

What is the problem with reductionism and biological mechanisms of aggression?

Answer 310

The link is not quite so clear in the case of humans. The complexity of human social behaviour means that a biological explanation for human aggression is insufficient on itts own.

Question 311

What did Raleigh et al find about neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 311

They found that vervet monkeys fed on experimental diets high in tryptophan (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of aggression. Indiviudals fed on diets that were low in tryptophan exhibited increased aggressive behaviour, suggesting that the difference in aggression could be attributed to their serotonin levels.

Question 312

What did Popova et al find about neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 312

Found that animals that are selectively bred for domestication and for increasingly docile temperaments, there is a corresponding increase, over generations, in brain concentrations of serotonin.

Question 313

What did Bond find about neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 313

Established that in clinical studies of antidepressant drugs that elevate seretonin levels they tend to reduce irritability and impulsive aggression.

Question 314

What did Couppis and Kennedy find abotu neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 314

Found that in mice, a reward pathway in the brain becomes engaged in response to an aggressive event and that dopamine is involved as a positive renforcer in this pathway. This suggests that individuals will intentionally seek out an aggressive encounter solely because they experience a reawrding sensation from it.

Question 315

What is the problem with linking dopamine to aggression?

Answer 315

Although research is fairly inconclusive about the causal role of dopamine in aggression, recent researchs uggests that its influence might be as a consequence instead.

Question 316

What did Albert et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 316

Claimed that despite many studies showing a positive correlation between testosterone and aggression, other studies find no such relationship, particularly those that have compared testosterone levels of aggressive and less aggressive individuals.

Question 317

What did Mazur claim about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 317

Suggests that we should distinguish aggression from dominance. Individuals act aggressively when their intent is to inflict injury, whereas they act dominately if they wish to achieve or maintain status over another. Aggression is just one form of dominant behaviour. In huans, the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely to be expressed in more varied and suble ways.

Question 318

What did Mcburnett et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 318

Four-year study of boys with behavioural problems. Those boys with consistently low cortisol levels began antisocial acts at a youner age and exhibited three times the number of aggressive syptoms compared to boys with higher or fluctuating coritsol levels. Researchers concluded that cortisol levels were ‘strongly and inversely related to aggressive conduct disorder’

Question 319

What did Klinesmith at al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 319

Had male students provide a saliva sample, interact either with a gun or a child’s toy for 15 minutes, and then provide another saliva sample. Males who interacted with the gun showed significantly greater increases in testosterone and behaved more aggressively toward another participant compared to those who played with child’s toy. (supports challenge hypothesis)

Question 320

What did Archer et al find about hormonal mechanisms and gender in aggression?

Answer 320

Found that the association between testosterone and aggression is higher for female than male samples.

Question 321

What did Baucom et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 321

That women with higher testosterone levels had higher occupational status, possibly as a result of being more assertive.

Question 322

What did Eisenegger et al find about hormonal mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 322

Found that testosterone could make women act ‘nicer’ rather than more aggressively, depending on the situation. This supports the idea that, rather than directly increasing aggression, testosterone promotes status-seeking behaviour of which aggression is one type.

Question 323

Why are twin studies used to study aggression?

Answer 323

If the MZ twins are more alike in terms of their aggressive behaviour then this should be due to genes rather than environment as both types of twin share the same environment as each other but MZ twins are more genetically alike

Question 324

What did Coccaro et al find about genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 324

Using adult twin pairs they found that nearly 50% of the variance in direct aggressive behaviour (aggression toward others) could be attributed to genetic factors.

Question 325

Why are adoption studies used to study aggression?

Answer 325

If a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and aggressive behaviour in thier biological parents, a genetic effect is implied. If a positive correlation is found between the adoptee’s aggressive behaviour and the rearing family, then an enviornmental effect is implied.

Question 326

What study did Hutchings and Mednick do on genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 326

A study of over 14,000 adoptions in Denmark found that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents (particularly fathers) with criminal convictions.

Question 327

What is MAOA?

Answer 327

A protein called monoamine ozidase produced by a gene. It regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain, and low levels of serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour.

Question 328

Why study did Brunner et al do on genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 328

a study of a Dutch family which found that many of its male members behaved in a particularly violent and aggressive manner, and a large proportion had been involved in serious crimes of violence, including rape and arson. These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA in their bodies, and a defect in this gene was later identified.

Question 329

What did Caspi et al find about genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 329

Studied 500 male children. Researchers discovered a variant of the gene associated with high levels of MAOA and a variant associated with low levels. Those with low levels of MAOA were significantly more likely to grow up to exhibit antisocial behaviour but only if they had been maltreated as children. CHildren with high levels of MAOA who were maltreated, and those with low levels who were not maltreated, did not display antisocial behaviour. Suggests gene-enviornment interaction

Question 330

What study did Brennan and Mednick do on genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 330

A series of adoption studies in which the criminal history of an adopted male was compared with the criminal history of both his biological and his adoptive fathers, found that genetic influences were signiicant in cases of property crime but not in cases of violent crime.

Question 331

WHat did Miles and Carey find about genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 331

Carried out a meta-analysis of 24 twin and adoption studies that supported the genetic basis of aggression. The result suggested a strong genetic influence that could account for as much as 50% of the variance in aggression. Both genes and family environment were influential in determining aggression in youth, but at later ages the influence of rearing environment decreased and the influence of genes increased.

Question 332

What did Rhee and Waldman find on genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 332

Combined the results of 51 twin and adoption studies and concluded that aggressive antisocial behaviour was largely a product of genetic contributions. However, several variables, including ae and assessment method moderated the genetic influence on aggression, usggesting the influence of other factors affect the expression.

Question 333

What are the main problems with samples used for studies into aggression?

Answer 333

A lot have focused on individuals convicted of violent crime. Convictions for violent crime are relatively few compared to the vast number of violent attacks by individuals that never result in a conviction. THey threrefore represent just a small minority of those regularly involved in aggressive behaviour. Also, offenders designated as ‘violent’ are not necessarily the most serious, persistant offenders.

Question 334

What are the difficulties of determining the role of genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 334

1. More than one gene usually contributes to a given behaviour
2. As well as genetic factors there are many non0genetic influences on the manifestation of aggression
3. These influences may interact with each other (gene-environment interaction etc.)

Question 335

WHat is a serious ethical issue with research on genetic factors of aggression?

Answer 335

Given the extremely tentative nature of conclusions that can be reached from this research and the far reaching ethical consequences of labelling an individual as a threat to society on the basis of their genetic inheritance, an awareness of the limitations of these studies is extremely important.

Question 336

What did Young et al find about genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 336

CClaimed to have identified a genetic mutation that causes violent behaviour in mice. THis mutation, nicknamed ‘fierce’ has a range of effects on mice, including extremely violent behaviour towards other mice. A counterpart of this gene does exist in humans, although its precise function is not known.

Question 337

What is the problems of assessing aggression in Miles and Carey’s study?

Answer 337

The mode of assessment was found to be a significant moderator of aggressive behaviour int he 24 studies that made up their analysis. They found that genetic factors explained a large proportion of the variance in aggressive behaviour in studies that had not used parental or self-reports. However, those that had made use of observational ratings showed significantly less genetic contribution and a greater influence of environmental factors.

Question 338

What did Plomin et al find about genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 338

Replicated Bandura Bobo doll study. Twin pairs were encouraged to act aggressively towards the doll by being exposed to an adult model who also acted aggressively towards it. Researchers found no difference in the correlations between MZ and DZ twins, suggesting that individual differences in aggression were more a product of environmental influences than genetic influences.

Question 339

What did Walters find about genetic factors in aggression?

Answer 339

A meta-analysis o studies found only a low to moderate correlation between heredity and crime, with better designed and more recently published studies providing less support for the gene-crime hypothesis than more poorly designed and earlier published studies.

Question 340

What did Daly and Wilson claim about evolutionary explanations of human aggression?

Answer 340

Claimed that men have evolved several different strategies to deter their female partners from committing adultery. These range from vigilance to violance, but all are fueld by male sexual jealous, an adaption that evolved specifically to deal with the threat of paternal uncertainty.

Question 341

How does the evolutionary explanation claim sexual jealousy is adaptive?

Answer 341

Men are always at risk of cuckoldry, and thu the adaptive functions of sexual jealousy would be to deter a mate from sexual infidelity, to reduce the risk of a man unwittingly investing his resources in offspring that are not his own.

Question 342

What did Buss suggest about evolutionary explanations of human aggression?

Answer 342

Suggests that males have a number of strategies that have evolved specifically for the purpose of keeping a mate. These include restricting their partners’ autonomy (‘direct guarding’) and ‘negative inducements’ in the form of violence or threats of violence to prevent her from straying.

Question 343

What did Dobash and Dobash find about evolutionary explanations of human aggression?

Answer 343

Showed that in studies of battered women, that in the majority of cases, women cite extreme jealousy on the part of their husbands or boyfrieds as the key cause of the violence directed toward them.

Question 344

WHat did Daly et al find about evolutionary explanations for human aggression?

Answer 344

That male sexual jealousy is claimed to be the single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes.

Question 345

What did Dell find about evolutionary explanations of human aggression?

Answer 345

Concluded that sexual jealousy accounted for 17% of all cases of murder in the UK.

Question 346

What did Daly et al find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 346

That the detection or suspicion of infidelity is a key predictor of partner violence.

Question 347

What did Goetz et al find about infidelity and violence?

Answer 347

That a conseuqneces of men’s perceptions or suspicions of their wives’ sexual infidelity is sexual coercion or partner rape.

Question 348

What did Camilleri find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 348

Found that sexual assault of a female by her male partner was directly linked with the perceived risk of her infidelity.

Question 349

What did Shields and Hanneke find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 349

Found that female victims of partner rape were more likely to have reported engaging in extra-marital sex than women who had not been raped by their male partners.

Question 350

What does the evolutionary explanation for human aggression say is the adaptive function of violence towards pregnant partners?

Answer 350

When a women becomes pregnant witha nother man’s child the function of violence directed towards her may be to terminate the pregnancy thus eliminationg the potential offspring of a rival and leaving her free to bear offspring for him

Question 351

How does the evolutionary explanation say that men can guard against their partner’s infidelity?

Answer 351

Either by conferring benefits or by inflicting costs, including violence.

Question 352

What did Shackelford et al find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 352

That, as not all men possess resources that might be used to provide benefits, some men are especially prone to using violence, or the threat of violence.

Question 353

What did Daly and WIlson argue about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 353

That the death of the partner from physical violence may be an unintended outcome of an evolutionary adaptation that was designed for control rather than death.

Question 354

What are the evolutionary explanations for human aggression?

Answer 354

1. Jealousy:
   - Cuckoldry
   - Mate retention and Violence
2. Infidelity
   - Sexual coercion
   - Violence toward pregnant partners
   - Uxorocide

Question 355

What did Buss and Shackelford find about jealousy and aggression?

Answer 355

Found that men who suspected that their wives might be unfaithful over the next year exacted greater punishment for a known or suspected infidelity than men who did not anticipate future infidelities.

Question 356

What did Shakelford et al argue about the practical applications of the evolutionary explanations of aggression?

Answer 356

That the particular tactics of mate retention used by males can be an early indicator of violence against the female partner. The findings from these studies can potentially be used to alert friends andf amily members to the danger signs, the specific acts that can lead to future violence.

Question 357

What did Takahasi et al find about jealousy and aggression?

Answer 357

Showed that the neural response to imagined scnes depicting sexual infidelity (e..g their partner having sex) and emotional jealousy (e.g. their partner falling in love) was different for men and women. using brain imaging techniques, they discovered that men showed much greater activation in the amygdala and hypothalamus (brain areas associated with aggression), when presented with scenes depicting sexual infidelity in their mate.

Question 358

What did Edlund and Sagarin argue about jealousy and aggression?

Answer 358

Claim that our understanding of the relationship between sexual jealousy and aggression is limited. For example, research doesn’t tell us whether the perceived locus of responsibility (.e.g whether the perceived infidelity is initiated by the female partner or the male rival) moderates the jealousy response. Nor does research tell us whether the degree and type of perceived infidelity is important.

Question 359

What did Camilleri and Quinsey find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 359

Found that men convicted of raping their partners were more likely to have experienced cuckoldry risks prior to their offence compared to men convicted of non-sexual partner abuse.

Question 360

What did Burch and Gallup find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 360

Found that the frequency of violent acts toward pregnant mates was roughly double that directed toward partners who were not pregnant, with sexual jealousy characterising those men who committed violence against their pregnant partners.

Question 361

What did Taillieu and Brownridge find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 361

Found that women abused while pregnant were more likely to be carrying the child of a man other than her current mate.

Question 362

What did Valladares et al find about infidelity and aggression?

Answer 362

Found that half of a sample of pregnant women physically abused by their partners had suffered from blows directed at their abdomen, specifcially designed to increase the probability of aborting the foetus.

Question 363

Why do Buss and Shackelford criticise the evolutionary explanation for aggression?

Answer 363

Suggest that it cannot account for why different males, when faced with their infidelity, respond in different ways.

Question 364

What are the major limitations towards evolutionary explanations of partner violence?

Answer 364

1. Cannot explain why people react in different ways when faced with the same adaptive problem
2. Gender bias- women also engage in mate retention tactics and sometimes behave violently towards their partners

Question 365

What did Felson find about jealousy and aggression?

Answer 365

(Gender bias) examined 2060 murders in the US and found that women were twice as likely to murder out of jealousy as were men.

Question 366

What are aggressive group displays a product of?

Answer 366

Some external stimulus that triggers the behaviour in question (known as the proximate cause). however, this may conceal the adaptive or ‘real’ reason why the behaviour evolved in the first place, known as its ultimate cause.

Question 367

What does Wilson claim about xenophobia?

Answer 367

Claims that xenophobia (a fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners) has been documented in virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisations.

Question 368

What did Shaw and Wong claim about xenophobia?

Answer 368

Argue that the mechanisms that prompt suspciion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. THis would have enabled our ancestors to avoid attack, and so leave behind more offspring.

Question 369

What does MacDonald claim about xenophobia?

Answer 369

Suggests that from an evolutionary perspective, it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders, as the overperception of threat is less costly than its underperception.

Question 370

What did Podaliri and Balestri about xenophobia?

Answer 370

Found evidence of xenophobic tendencies in their analysis of the group displays of Italian football crowds.

Question 371

What is territoriality?

Answer 371

The protective response to an invasion of one’s territory.

Question 372

What does Huntingford and Turner argue about territoriality?

Answer 372

That territorial behaviour is common in many animal species, which typically show threat displays toward outsiders and attack with greater vigour when defending a home territory.

Question 373

Why would aggressive group displays have been adaptive for our distance ancestors?

Answer 373

Because they allowed groups to defend valuable resources associated with thier terriroty.

Question 374

What did Neave and WOlfson find about territoriality?

Answer 374

Found that football teams playing at home were far more likely to win than the visiting team partly because players have the benefit of a huge surge in testosterone before a match. They believed this could be due to an evolved drive to defend home territory, which led to more aggressive displays when playing at home. This increase in testosterone levels before home games (compared with levels before training) did not occur before away games. Team members who subjectively felt that the burden of ‘defending the territory’ lay with them (e.g. goalkeepers) had higher levels of testosterone compared to other players.

Question 375

What did Divale and Harris find about the benefits of aggressive displays?

Answer 375

In socieites that experience frequent warfare, males are far more likely to escape infanticide than females because of their potential usefulness in battle. As a result, since there are relatively few women compared to men in those societies, men must compete with other for mates, with those that do well in battle being ‘rewarded’ by access to female mates.

Question 376

What did Chagnon find about the benefits of aggressive display?

Answer 376

Male warriors in traditional societies tend to have more sexual partners and more children suggesting a direct reproductive benefit.

Question 377

What could be the adaptive function of warfare in terms of acquistion of status within groups?

Answer 377

Because cooperation between males is so important to an individual’s status in the group, fleeing from battle would make an individual appear a ‘coward’ thus losing the respect of their peers. Therefore, displays of aggressiveness and bravery in battle means that individuals are more likely to strength the bond between them and other males in the group, and share the benefits associated with status, which in turn would increase their reproductive fitness.

Question 378

What did Irons claim about the function of costly displays?

Answer 378

Claims that the costliness of permanent displays such as scars and mutilationo means that they serve as honest signals of commitment to the group. By engaging in such displays, individuals demonstrate their commitment and loyalty to the group and so can benefit from the profits of warfare against another group.

Question 379

What did Thorpe claim about the function of costly displays?

Answer 379

Minimisies the likelihood of defection. This is because such permanent displays minimise the ability of males to abscond to another group and increase their commitment to the group of which they are a member..

Question 380

What are the explanations for aggressive group displays in sports?

Answer 380

1. Xenophobia

2. Territoriality

Question 381

What are the explanations for aggressive group displays in warfare?

Answer 381

1. Benefits of aggressive displays
   - Sexual Selection
   - Acquisition of status within the group
2. Costly displays signal commitment
   - Signals of commitment
   - Minimising the likelihood of defection

Question 382

What did Foldesi find about xenophobia?

Answer 382

FInd evidence to support the link between xenophobia and violent displays among Hungarian football crowds. he found that the racist conduct of a core of extremist supporters led to an increase of spectators’ volence in general, and xenohpbia outbursts in particular. Violent incidents based on racist or xenophobic attitudes were observed in all stadia, with gypsies, Jews and Russians the usual targets.

Question 383

What did Lewis et al find about territoriality?

Answer 383

FOund that among football fans, crowd support was rated as the most significant factor contribution to a home advantage.

Question 384

What did Pollard and Pollard find about territoriality?

Answer 384

The home team advantage- the relationship with crowd size is unclear as the advantage has been shown to operate even with very small crowds.

Question 385

What study did Moore and Brylinsky do on territoriality?

Answer 385

A measles epidemic resulted in a quarantine that caused 11 American basketball games for two teams to be played without spectators. For one team, The Siena Saints, 9 away games were analysed. Five were played with spectators, 4 without. They scored an average of 76.25 points with spectators, and 86.20 without. The other team, the Hatford Hawks, 11 home games were analysesd, 4 with no spectators, 7 with spectators. Scored an average of 64.29 with spectators, yet 71.25 without. Suggests that home crowds did not increase performance.

Question 386

What did Palmer and Tilley find about the benefits of aggressive displays?

Answer 386

Found that male youth street gang members have more sexual partners than ordinary young males.

Question 387

What did Leunissen and Van Vugt find about the benefits of aggressive displays?

Answer 387

Found that military men have greater sex appeal but only if they have been observed showing bravery in combat.

Question 388

What did Leblanc and Register argue about warfare?

Answer 388

War only emerged when humans shifted from a nomadic existence to a settled one. So rather than being an evolved adaption, it may have emerged as a rational response to a changing lifestyle. THis suggests that warfare and aggressive displays associated, are not biological compulsions but are a consequences of environmental changes such as rising populations and dwindling food supplies.

Question 389

What did Watson find in relation to warfare?

Answer 389

He found anthropological evidence that suggests that the atrocities committed in war may be more a consequences of deindividuation effects than of evolutionary adaptions.

Question 390

What is the major limitation of an evolutionary explanation of warfare?

Answer 390

1. Fail to explain the astonishing levels of cruelty that are often found in human wars yet not among non-human species.
2. Gender bias as they do not adequately reflect the behaviour of women in this process. Our understanding of displays typically found in warfare, is therefore limited to the behaviour of males.