gender Flashcards
sex
Whether an individual is biologically male or female.
gender
social and psychological characteristics of males and females.
What are sex-role stereotypes?
qualities and characteristics seen as appropriate for each sex.
female sex-role stereotypes
Nurturing, co-operative, domestic, emotional, passive.
male sex-role stereotypes
Strong, independent, physical, aggressive, unemotional.
source of sex-role stereotypes
Primary socialisation, school, careers, media, culture.
What is Bem’s gender schema theory?
At 2-3 years, children begin to develop gender schemas that influence their behavior.
What is androgyny?
Balance of male and female characteristics within an individual’s personality
BSRI AO3
+ valid and reliable, quantitative method, 1000 students tested, good test-retest
- lacks generalisabilty and temporal validity, american, 50 years ago
Burchardt & Serbin
Androgyny is positively correlated with good mental health.
BSRI
Bem Sex Role Inventory - respondents rate themselves on a seven point scale on 60 male, female or neutral characteristics
chromosomes
23 pairs in humans that carry genetic information; biological sex is determined by the X and Y chromosomes.
XX - female
XY - male
hormones
Chemical messengers that are released into the bloodstream from the glands.
role of hormones
prenatal effect on brain and genitals, burst of activity at puberty
testosterone
male prenatal development, aggression
hormones (biological gender) AO3
Wang et al - evidence for testosterone impacting male sexual behaviour when given to hypergonadal men
biological approach & gender - pathologising gender AO3
PMS damaging social construction (Rodin), eg crazy women during their period although diagnosis can lead to support and treatments
oestrogen
female prenatal development, menstruation, PMS, emotionality
What role does oestrogen play in pregnancy according to Albrecht & Pepe (1997)?
Oestrogen plays a key role in maintaining and promoting pregnancy.
What is oxytocin?
‘love hormone’, reduces cortisol
biological explanation AO3
- reductionist in that it ignores cognitive impact (schema) or psychodynamic (conflict) as well as environment (SLT)
What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?
XXY males with no facial/pubic hair, excess breast tissue, and low fertility. poor language and problem solving, shy, little interest in sex
What is Turner’s syndrome?
XO females with short stature, organ abnormalities, and non-functioning ovaries. socially immature, poor spatial memory, high reading ability
What treatments are available for Turner’s syndrome?
Treated with growth hormones and oestrogen supplements.
atypical sex chromosome patterns- nature/nurture AO3
nature/nurture debate - are the psychological symptoms linked to chromosomal condition or due to nurture eg. treating an individual with Turner syndrome as immature because they appear physically immature
what are the two cognitive explanations for gender development?
Kohlberg’s theory and gender schema theory.
who proposed gender schema theory?
martin and halverson
what does gender schema theory state?
children actively structure their learning through schema. Cognitive-developmental theory
when do children start searching for information to create gender schema ?
after gender identity is established, around 2-3 years
link between schema and behaviour
children use their gender schema to establish gender appropriate behaviours
ingroup vs outgroup recall
Children have a better memory of information relating to the ingroup that they identify as they add this to their schema & understanding of their own gender. Both gender schemas are created around 8y/o.
what type of theory is kohlberg’s?
cognitive-developmental - argues that gender development happens with brain maturation and not just experience
What is Kohlberg’s theory of gender constancy?
around 6 years old, children understand that gender is fixed over time and situations. seek gender appropriate role models to identify with
gender identity - Kohlberg
around 2 years old - understand own gender and can label man/woman but don’t see gender as fixed
What is gender stability according to Kohlberg?
around 4 years- children recognise that gender is retained for life, can’t apply this to others and may be confused by external changes in appearance
What is gender constancy according to Kohlberg?
around 6 years - children recognise that gender is permanent across time and situations. seek gender-appropriate role models
Psychodynamic theory of gender development
conflicts in the phallic stage when focus of pleasure switches to genitals. Oedipus and Electra complexes.
how are conflicts in the phallic stage resolved?
child identifies with same-sex parents and internalises their behaviours and attitudes. Realises that the same sex parent is more powerful/stronger so cannot compete for opposite-sex parent’s love
What is the Oedipus complex?
Boys have an unconscious sexual desire for their mother and fear their father.
What is the Electra complex?
Girls have an unconscious sexual desire for their father and dislike their mother.
who was Little Hans?
Freud used case study of Little Hans to prove the oedipus complex. Claimed Hans’ fear of horses was a displacement of the fear of his father and castration anxiety.
What is the social learning theory of gender development?
Gender develops through observation and imitation of role models.
SLT and gender
gender as a psychosocial construct, influence of environment on gender development. key concepts - direct reinforcement, differential reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement
what are the four mediational processes?
attention, retention, motivation and motor reproduction
Perry and Bussey (AO3)
Children shown same sex and opposite sex models picking fruit and found that children tended to pick same fruit as same sex role model. Supports modelling and identification.
Identification support & Freud (AO3)
Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender focuses on unresolved psychosexual complexes which resolve through identification with same-sex parent.
Smith and Lloyd (AO3)
Observed adults interacting with babies given boy names or girl names. ‘Boys’ played with more aggressively, ‘girls’ played with more sensitively. Supports differential reinforcement.
What did Maccoby (1990) find about children’s social groups?
Schoolchildren segregate themselves into same-gender groups.
What did Steinke (2008) find about media representation?
Children’s TV programs portray more male scientists than females.
What is atypical gender development?
Any non-cis gender development.
What is gender dysphoria?
A condition where the internal and external sexual characteristics differ from one’s psychological experience of gender.
What are social explanations for gender identity disorder (GID)?
See transgenderism as learned during socialization through operant conditioning and social learning.
What are biological explanations for GID?
See transgenderism as the result of genetics or hormonal imbalances.
What did Hare (2009) find about gender dysphoria?
Found a link between gender dysphoria and a variant of the androgen receptor gene.
