approaches -ao1 complete Flashcards
Introspection
People trained to systematically analyse one’s own conscious experience. Experiences are analysed in terms of their component parts (or structures), thoughts, images and sensations. Developed by Wundt.
Structuralism
Attempting to isolate the structure of consciousness.
Behavioural approach
Believes that all behaviour is learnt and that we are born as a blank slate. Only concerned with observable behaviour that can be measured (not internal processes).
Classical conditioning
This is a behaviourist theory which says that humans and animals learn new behaviours by the process of association.
Association
When two stimuli are paired together at the same time, they become linked
Stimulus
Something in the environment that may or may not result in a response
Response
A reaction to stimuli
Generalisation
When a similar stimulus to the learnt stimulus elicits the same response (e.g. bitten by an Alsatian now afraid of all dogs).
Extinction
When a conditioned pairing decays over time. Conditioned stimuli aren’t permanent unless they are occasionally paired with the UCS.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Something in the environment that elicits no innate response, e.g. ring of a bell
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Something in the environment that elicits a response that does not need to be learnt, e.g. food
Unconditioned response (UCR)
An innate reaction to an unconditioned stimulus, e.g. salivation when encountering food
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Something in the environment that elicits a response that needs to be learnt
Conditioned response (CR)
A reaction to a conditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
Positive reinforcement
A pleasant consequence to a behaviour that increases the likelihood of repeating that behaviour
Negative reinforcement
Any behaviour that leads to an escape from an unpleasant situation will increase the likelihood of repeating that behaviour.
Punishment
A negative consequence to a behaviour that decreases the likelihood of repeating that behaviour.
Social Learning Theory
Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of role models within a social context.
Identification
When a model is high status, likeable, attractive and similar to a person (e.g. age and gender) the model is more likely to be imitated.
Modelling
Demonstrating the behaviour to be copied
Mediational processes
Cognitive factors (thoughts) that come between stimulus and response and determine the likelihood that observed behaviours will be repeated. These include attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
Attention
Focusing on a behaviour - watching it closely.
Retention
Coding the behaviour seen into the observers memory, e.g. is it easy to remember?
Motor reproduction/Self-efficacy
The belief that the behaviour observed can be imitated
Motivation
Believing the benefits of performing a behaviour outweigh any costs.
Vicarious reinforcement
The observed consequences of behaviour for someone else determine the likelihood that it will be repeated, e.g. witnessing someone being praised for behaviour increases the chance the observer imitates it.
Cognitive Approach
Focuses on how our internal mental processes are responsible for our behaviour. The approach believes we can and should study internal mental processes scientifically.
Inferences
Making assumptions made about internal mental processes which can’t be observed. These assumptions use and go beyond the behaviour seen within research.
Schema
Packages of information / units of knowledge developed through experience. They provide a mental framework for us to interpret information. They become more detailed and sophisticated as we age (assimilation & accommodation).
Computer analogy
Processing of information in humans is similar (analogous) to the way a computer works, concepts from computing such as coding, retrieval and storage can be used to explain internal mental processes.
Theoretical model
Diagrams / pictorial representations used to explain how the mind works (e.g. the multi store model of memory is a diagram of stores), which allow psychologists to construct hypotheses
Cognitive neuroscience
Brain scans used to scientifically study of the influence of brain structures on cognitive processes, e.g. fMRIs show a link for lateral frontal lobes and OCD.
Biological Approach
Everything psychological has a biological basis, such as genes, brain structure and neurochemistry. The mind and body are one and the same - the mind lives in the brain, therefore all thoughts have a physical basis.
Genetic influence of behaviour
Psychological characteristics are inherited, so specific genes are implicated in disorders, e.g. COMT in OCD and SZ.
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual / Particular set of genes that a person possesses
Phenotype
Characteristics of an individual determined by an interaction between genes and the environment
Concordance rates
The likelihood that if one person has a trait, someone else (e.g. their twin) also has the same trait. A test of phenotypal similarity between individuals, based on genotypal similarity.
Evolutionary theory
Genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction is naturally selected for, Darwin (1859). Such genes are adaptive.
Neurochemistry
Chemicals in the brain that can affect thinking and behaviours. Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters and hormones can affect mood. E.g. Low serotonin is linked to depression.
Twin studies
Scientists can compare the concordance rates of MZ and DZ twins in order to determine the extent of genetic influence of a particular trait.
Psychodynamic Approach
Believes that behaviour is influenced by our unconscious mind. This is a storehouse of our repressed memories, instincts and biological drives.
Unconscious mind
A storehouse of repressed memories, innate drives and instincts. The part of our psyche of which we are unaware and is difficult to access. A key part in determining our behaviour.
Preconscious
What we are not currently conscious of but could become aware of, e.g. recent memory.
Conscious mind
What we are aware of
Tripartite structure of personality
Claims that our psyche is made up of a dynamic interaction between id, ego and superego
Id
Part of the personality we are born with. It operates on the pleasure principle, demanding instant gratification.
Ego
Works on the reality principle. This aspect of the mind mediates between the id and superego and employs defence mechanisms. Develops around 5 years.
Superego
Internalised sense of right and wrong, based on the morality principle. Punishes the ego through guilt. Develops around 3 years.
Defence mechanism
Unconscious strategies such as repression, denial and displacement used to reduce anxiety.
Denial
A defence mechanism: The rejection of a particular aspect of reality
Displacement
A defence mechanism: When we transfer our true feelings from the original source to a substitute target
Repression
A defence mechanism: When memories are forced into our unconscious, usually due to their traumatic nature
Psychosexual stages (overview)
Freud claimed child development occurred in five developmental phases. Each stage is marked by a different conflict the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. Any unresolved psychosexual conflict leads to fixation.
The psychosexual stages: Oral
0-1 years old, pleasure focus is the mouth, consequence of unresolved conflict is an oral fixation - smoking, biting nails etc
The psychosexual stages: Anal
1-3 yrs, focus of pleasure is the anus from withholding or expelling faeces, consequence of unresolved conflict is anal retentive or anal expulsive personality;
The psychosexual stages: Phallic
3-6 years, focus of pleasure is the genital areas. Consequence of unresolved conflict is a phallic personality - narcissistic and reckless.
The psychosexual stages: latency
6-12 year, earlier conflicts are repressed
The psychosexual stages: Genital
Sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty. Consequences of unresolved conflict is difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
Psychoanalysis
A form of treatment developed from the Psychodynamic approach which aims to study the unconscious mind
Humanistic Approach
Approach that views mental health to be related to free will and self-determination
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external factors.
Self-actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of
Concept of the self
The self refers to ideas and concepts that constitute what ‘I’ am
Unconditional positive regard
A technique used by Humanistic therapists, whereby they respect the patient’s choices and right to self-determination. A lack of self-worth and value has its roots in a lack of unconditional positive regard (or unconditional love) in childhood
Client centred therapy
The Humanistic approach to treatment - focus is on the patient, and a sense of warmth and understanding
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
A five-levelled structure in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological (growth) needs, such as self-actualisation, can be achieved.
Congruence
When a person’s ideal self broadly matches up to their perceived self It is the aim of Rogerian therapy.
Conditions of worth
When a person has a perception that parents set of boundaries of love - the child is taught to believe that they are only worthy of love under specific circumstances, e.g. ‘I will only love you if… you study medicine.’
Wundt (not a study)
Came up with the technique of introspection as a standardised method of investigating one’s conscious experience of a stimulus (like a metronome)
Skinner
Taught rats/pigeons etc new behaviours by using food as rewards for given behaviours (such as pressing a lever) in controlled environment known as the Skinner box.
Pavlov
Paired the ringing of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimuli) to create salivation (conditioned response) at the ringing of a bell in the future (conditioned stimulus)
Watson and Raynor
Taught an infant (Little Albert) to develop a phobia of fluffy items by pairing these items with loud noises
Gilroy et al
Three sessions of systematic desensitisation compared to relaxation techniques (control). Symptoms lower in SD group after 3 and 33 months.
Bandura et al
Developed SLT when he found that children who had seen an adult model behaving aggressively to a model were more likely to be aggressive to the model themselves
Bandura and Walters
Children observed consequences for a model being aggressive to a doll– praised, punished or no consequence. Praised model most likely to be imitated.
March et al
CBT is effective at treating depression in 81% of the time.
Darwin
Explains evolution and the role of natural selection
Soomro et al
SSRIs are 70%+ effective for OCD
Freud (not a study)
Developed the Psychodynamic approach, including the psychosexual stages and his iceberg theory of the psyche, containing the id, ego and superego
Freud
Little Hans case study. Little Hans had a phobia of horses that Freud explained as displaced feelings from castration anxiety from his father.
De Maat et al.
Reviewed therapies for mental health disorders. Found psychoanalysis to be effective for many conditions
Fischer and Greenburg
Conducted a systematic review of research. Found 2500+ studies that support elements of Freuds theory such as the unconscious and the use of defence mechanisms.
Maslow (not a study)
Developed the hierarchy of needs, which is a key element of Humanistic psychology
Rogers (not a study)
Developed client centred therapy (CCT) as a non-directive therapy to boost self-esteem and help people achieve congruence and self-actualisation.
