Gender

Question 1

Sex and Gender Overview

Answer 1

Sex and gender are different things, despite the fact that are used interchangeably in every day life, therefore suggesting they are the same
Psychologists, however, recognise them as separate concepts
It is important to be clear on this distinction and how our social and cultural understanding of what it means to be a man or a woman given rise to sex-role stereotypes

Question 2

Sex

Answer 2

This refers to our biological status as either male or female
- it is binary
This is determines by one pair of chromosomes
- male = XY
- female = XX
These chromosomes then influence hormonal differences and anatomical differences
Hormone differences:
- testosterone in male
- oestrogen in females
Anatomical differences:
- different genitalia
- body hair
- muscle and hair distribution
- body shape
- height

Question 3

Gender

Answer 3

This refers to a person’s psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine
- how you understand yourself
It includes all the attitudes, roles and behaviours we associates with ‘being a man’ or ‘being a woman’
These are heavy influenced by social norms or cultural expectations

Question 4

Sex vs Gender

Answer 4

Sex is innate and the result of nature
- it can’t be changed
Gender is at least partly environmental and is therefore due to nurture
Gender is a social construct rather than a biological fact
- it is therefore not ‘fixed’ but rather futile and open to change
- a person may become ‘more masculine’ or ‘more feminine’ depending on the social context they are in and the norms and expectations associated with it
- for example, woman may become competitive in the workplace or a man kind and nurturing with a child

Question 5

Sex-role stereotypes

Answer 5

Sex-role stereotypes are a set of shared expectations that people within a society or a culture hold about what is acceptable or usual behaviour for men and women

Question 6

Sex-role stereotype examples

Answer 6

Male stereotypes:
Breadwinners
Least interactive parent
No emotions
Strong
Men will be men
Workplace
Messy
Sporty
Encouraged to have many sexual partners
Showing emotions is weak
Female stereotypes:
Overly emotional
Household jobs
Stay at home
Irrational
Weak
Don’t belong in the workplace
Should submit to men
Bad drivers
Must be put together at all times
Parental figure
Accused of sleeping around if they have many sexual partners

Question 7

Sex-role stereotype origins

Answer 7

Stereotypes are a type of schema
- they come from experience, such as family, friends, media, shops
These ideas come from agents of socialisation
The dangers of this include:
- lower self-esteem if you don’t fit in the stereotype
- limiting - don’t do things so you don’t get judged
- discriminate based on the stereotypes

Question 8

Androgyny

Answer 8

Many researchers have suggested that in recent decades there has been a blurring of the distinction between masculinity and femininity
It is claimed that young people in particular are becoming increasingly androgynous in their behaviours and attitudes

Question 9

Androgyny

Answer 9

In every day language, when we talk of someone being ‘androgynous’, we are usually referring to someone who has the appearance of someone who can’t be clearly identified as a man or woman
However, in psychological language, androgyny, refers to a personality type that is characterised by a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviour
- For example, a man or woman who is both ambitious at work (masculine trait) and a warm parent at home (feminine trait)
Bede suggested that high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being
- this may be because it allows you to feel confident and be successful in different areas of your life
However, this assumption has been challenged
- some researchers have argued that people who have greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted
- this may be because these traits are more typically valued in Western Societies
- this could boost self esteem

Question 10

BSRI

Answer 10

Bem (1974) developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny
It present 60 traits (20 that are commonly identified as masculine, 20 feminine, 20 neutral)
These traits were chosen by asking 50 male and 50 males (these were not ppts ad just helped to make the study) judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how much the traits represented ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’
The 20 traits that scored highest on ‘maleness’ and ‘femalness’ went on the inventory
This is a strength of the BSRI because she used both males and females to develop the BSRI, may give a more valid view of male an female traits
- she also used a large number
- and it was also developed objectively and unbiased
It uses a rating scale, in that participants are asked to rate each trait on a 7 point rating scale
- 1 = never true of me
- 7 = always true of me
This is an ordinal scale, which is not fixed, giving it objectivity
- one person’s interpretation may be different to another’s
- it is also giving quantitative data, which is easy to statistically analyse
- however it lacks the depth and richness we get from qualitative data
The inventory treats masculinity and femininity as as 2 independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterise a person as masculine, feminine, androgynous or undifferentiated
There is a graph, the Y-axis being femininity and the X-axis being masculinity, each quadrant representing one of the 4 areas

Question 11

How the BSRI works

Answer 11

Some of the traits on the questionnaire include things such as:
- acts as a leader
- childlike
- analytical
- compassionate
- independent
- sympathetic
Once you have given the rating of all of the characteristics, you add your scores up for each column
You then add column 1 and 5 (masculine) and 3 and 6 (feminine)
You then substrate your feminine traits score from your masculine traits score, to receive your Bem score
The androgyny scale is as follows:
- masculine >+20
- nearly masculine +10 to +19
- androgynous +9 to -9
- nearly feminine -10 to -19
Feminine <-20

Question 12

BSRI Strengths

Answer 12

In the original study, Bem firstly piloted the BSRI with over 1000 college junior college students, and their results broadly corresponded with their own description of their gender identity
- a large sample, increased generalisability
- the agreement in score and own description suggests the BSRI has high internal validity

A follow up study in which she asked 561 males and 356 females (all from the pilot sample) to re-complete the BSRI a month later produced similar scores
- shows evidence for external reliability, consistency in results over time, as she did test-retest

Question 13

BSRI Limitations

Answer 13

The BSRI was developed 50 years ago in the USA using college students
- 50 years ago might be out of date, and may lack temporal validity
- traits considered “male” or “female” may have shifted over time
- the BSRI may contain outdated sex role stereotypes
- lack of population validity
- college students tend to be more liberal, or moe uncertain of themselves at this point in their life - they tend to be more non-conforming
- also developed in the USA and assumes that the ‘male’ and ‘female’ traits are the sae around the world
- its rather ethnocentric (beta culture bias)
However, a 1998 replication of Bem’s method (including the development of the traits) found that all but 2 of the traits were validated
The BSRI appears to be valid across geography and culture as it has been used in places such as Zimbabwe, Japan and China with good validity and reliability when a few items were removed to improve cultural fit
In addition, Carver et al (2013) used an abridged version of the BSRI with an older population (65+) living in Brazil and the findings showed that the BSRI appears to be valid across age groups

The BSRI requires people to rate themselves on a questionnaire - self-repot method
- people may show social-desirability bias
- they may give slightly different answers than what were true so they could score what they desired or to fit in with their peers
- its rather hard to rate yourself and have insight into yourself
- very long questionnaire and some people might rush through it because you get bored and not thoroughly think about the answers given
- people might not know what all of the terms mean

Question 14

The role of chromosomes and hormones overview

Answer 14

From a prude biological perspective, sex and gedner are one and the same
Behavioural, psychological and social differences are seen to be the result of anatomical, chromosomal and hormonal differences within the body

Question 15

Chromosomes

Answer 15

Male and female embryos up to 8 weeks have external genitalia that look the same
- at 8 weeks, genetically XY males produce androgens which stimulates the development of male genitalia (as the Y carries a gene called ‘sex-determining Y’)
- in XX females this process don’t take place, thus the female genitalia develop
The ovum can only supply an X (female), the sperm can contribute either an X or a Y (male)
- if the sperm contributes a Y, the zygote will be genetically male (XY), whereas if the sperm contribute an X, the zygote will be fable (XX)
There are 46 chromosomes in humans, arranges in 23 pairs
The sex of a baby is determined at conception when the sperm and ovum form a zygote (fertilised egg)
- the sperm and the egg both contribute to the zygote
- the 23 pairs of these contains DNA instructions to determine the zygote’s sex

Question 16

Hormones

Answer 16

Males and females produces many of the same hormones, but in different concentrations
These are chemical substances secreted by the glands throughout the body and carried in the bloodstream
At puberty, during adolescence, a burst of activity from hormones triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair
Prenatally (in the womb), hormones act upon brain development, causing development of the reproductive organs

Question 17

Testosterone

Answer 17

This is a male hormone, although it is present in small quantities in women
When released in the womb, this hormone causes the development of the male sex organs (at 8 weeks)
- if a genetic male produces no testosterone during foetal development then no male sex organs appear (meaning that the newly born infant - although genetically male - will have female genitals and be assigned female a birth)
- if a genetic female produces high levels of this hormone during foetal development, then male sex organs may appear
Testosterone is associated with typically male behaviours such as:
- aggression
- competitiveness
- Visio-Spatial abilities
- higher sexual drive
This may have evolutionary benefits, such as aggression towards rivals allows males to compete for the opportunity to mate with a fertile female

Question 18

Oestrogen

Answer 18

This is a female hormone that governs the development of secondary sexual characteristics and menstruation from adolescence onwards
Alongside the physical changes, it can cause some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle, referred to as PSM (pre-menstrual tension)
- this is referred to as PMS (pre-menstrual syndrome) when these effects become a diagnosed disorder
- PMS has been used (successfully) as a defence in cases of shoplifting and even murder

Question 19

Oxytocin

Answer 19

Women typically produce this in much larger amounts than men, particularly as a result of giving brith
- it is released in massive quantities during labour and after child birth and makes new mothers feel ‘in love’ with their baby
It stimulates lactation (making breastfeeding possible), reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding
The fact that men produce less oxytocin has, in the past, fuelled the popular stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy and closeness in a relationship
- however, both sexes produce this hormone in roughly equal amounts during intimate sexual activities

Question 20

Evidence for biology

Answer 20

One strength is that there is a large body of research evidence that supports the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender development
For example research into CAH (congenital adrenal hyperplasia), a rare genetic disorder that causes high prenatal levels of male hormones such as testosterone. A 2003 study found that females with CAH are often described by their family and friends as being ‘tomboys’, exhibit higher levels of aggression that other girls and show a preference for ‘male’ toys
This is evidence for biology because it does suggest biological factors (hormones) are involved in gender)
However, we do need to be cautious of these findings due to confirmation bias. Parents may be looking for “evidence” that support their expectation that their daughter will be tom-boyish

Another strength is that there is further evidence
For example, research by Wang et al, (2000) showed the link between testosterone and sexual behaviour. 227 hypogonadal men (men whose testes failed to produce normal levels of testosterone) were given testosterone therapy for 180 days. The testosterone therapy improved sexual function, libido and mood, and significant increases in muscle strength were observed across the sample.
This is for biology because it shows that testosterone has a powerful influenced on male gender development
However, a double-blind placebo study by O’Conner et al (2004) increased testosterone levels in healthy young men. There were no significant increases in frequency of sexual activity or sex drive reported. Neither were there any changes in aggression or anger levels. These are contradictory findings. You would predict they would become ‘hyper-masculine’ however they didn’t

There are also case studies that show evidence for biology.
For example, the case study of David Reiner, also known as ‘they boy without a penis’. In the 60s, David Reiner went through a botched circumcision, which resulted in him losing his penis. Hi9s parents were told to take him home and raise him as a girl, and the issue would be resolved. However, this didn’t work (even despite the fact that he was put on hormone replacement therapy once he hit puberty) and David always strongly associated with masculinity throughout his life and began living as a male later in life.
This is evidence for biology because it shows that Reiner must have had an innate part of his gender, as if biology didn’t play a role in gender, he would have happily lived his life as a girl rather than feeling much moe masculine
However, this was a case study. Case studies are very specific to each individual person. While Reimer behaved how he did in this study, there is nothing to suggest that someone else would behave in the same way. And we are unable to repeat thus, as it is a very unusual circumstance and it would be highly unethical to purposefully put someone in this position for a psychological study

Question 21

Evidence against biology

Answer 21

One limitation of biological explanations of gender development is that they are biologically reductionist and they ignore other,psychological, explanations of gender development.
For example, cognitive explanations of gender development such as gender schema theory, which suggests that young children develop a set of beliefs about the sexes which help determine what the child attends to and how they interpret the world. There are also psychodynamic explanations of gender development.
This is a limitation because it suggests that gender is more complex that its biological influences alone.

A second limitation of biological explanations of gender is that they ignore the role of social factors in gender-related behaviour.
For example, Hofstede et al (2010) argue that gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms rather than biology. Indeed, these researchers equate notions of masculinity and femininity with whether whole cutlers are individualist or collectivist. Individualistic cultures such as the UK and US are, according to Hofstede, more masculine in their outlook, meaning that traditional masculine traits are more highly valued with these societies, in turn shaping gender and behaviour and attitudes. These cultures are individualist cultures where the focus is on the success of you as an individual. This requires showing more masculine traits such as ambition and competitiveness.
This is a limitation because it challenges biological explanations of gender, suggesting that social factors may ultimately be more important in gender development.

Question 22

Atypical sex chromosome patterns Introduction

Answer 22

We need to be aware that not all individuals conform to the typical XX or XY chromosome pattern
2 such examples are individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome
In addition to considering the physical and psychological differences that are characteristic to these conditions, we also need to be able to use what atypical sex chromosomes contribute to our understanding of the nature-nurture debate with regards to gender development

Question 23

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 23

Psychological characteristics:
- poor reading abilities
- passive and shy
- poor language skills
- poor memory and problems-solving skills
- don’t respond well to stressful situations
Physical characteristics:
- rounding of body contours
- reduced body hair
- gynaecomastia
- long limbs
- under developed genitals
- co-ordination problems
General information:
- extra X chromosome
- affects around 1 in 600
- biologically male

Question 24

Turner’s syndrome

Answer 24

Psychological characteristics:
- socially immature
- higher than average reading ability
- poor spatial awareness
- poor memory and mathematical skills
- difficulty fitting in
Physical characteristics:
- ovaries fail to develop
- hips not bigger than waist
- don’t develop breasts
- don’t have a mesntural cycle
- webbed neck
- appearance of a prepubescent girl
General information:
- absence of an X chromosome
- affects 1 in 5000
- biologically female

Question 25

Strengths of research into atypical sex chromosomes

Answer 25

One strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is its contribution to the nature-nature debate
For example, by comparing people who have these symptoms with chromosome-typical individuals, it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups. For example, individuals who lack x-chromosomes are socially immature. This suggests that the X-chromosome is important in managing social situations. This can also be seen because people with an extra X-chromosome respond poorly to stressful situations. It might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure
This is a strength because it supports the view that innate ‘nature’ influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
However, there are issues in leaping to this conclusion
For example, it may be environmental and social factors seen in individuals with Klinefelter’s and Turner’s syndrome are more responsible than for the behavioural differences observed. Parents, peers and others may react differently to the prepubescent appearance of people with Turner’s syndrome by treating them in a child like way, which might in turn encourage immature behaviour which might also have an impact of their academic performance.
This shows how it could be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are fully due to nature

Another strength of the research is its application into managing the syndrome.
Continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of the syndromes, as well as treatments to manage the conditions. Treatments for Klinefelter’s syndrome include testosterone therapy to increase muscle strength, libido and growth of body hair treating Turner’s syndrome includes giving growth hormones in childhood to help increase adult height by a several cm and oestrogen therapy at puberty to help stimulate the menstrual cycle.
This is a strength because it shows that increased awareness and knowledge of atypical sex chromosome patterns does have a useful real-world application. A 2011 Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed that those ho had been identified and treated from a very young age experiences significant benefits in terms of managing their syndrome compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood

Question 26

Limitations of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 26

One limitation with the description of Klinefelter’s syndrome in particular is that there may be a sampling issue
For example, Boada et al (2009) reported that many individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome do not experience significant cognitive or psychological problems, and many are highly successful academically and in their personal lives and careers. However, in general only those who have the most severe symptoms are identified.
This is a limitation because it suggests that the typical picture of people with these syndromes may well be exaggerated, distorting the picture of ‘typical symptoms’

Question 27

Gender Explanations - Psychodynamic theory introduction

Answer 27

While already previously studied, we haven’t seen much of the psychodynamic approach applied to behaviour
This is because mainly today Freud’s ideas are considered outdated and controversial but its still important to know them as at the time, they were hugely influential

Question 28

How does the psychodynamic theory explain gender development?

Answer 28

The psychodynamic theory of gender development suggests that gender identity and role are acquired during the third stage of psychosexual development, the phallic stage
Before this, in the oral and anal stages, the child does not have a gender identity and its sexual drives are directed indiscriminately
As the child enters the phallic stage, the focus of its libido moves to the genitals and the development of girls and boys diverges

Boys enter the Oedipus complex
They start to sexually desire their mothers
They realise that their father stands in the way of the satisfaction of their desire this frustration of the id’s desires results in aggressive feelings, which are directed towards the father
At the same time, the boy realises that his father is more powerful that he is and starts to fear that if the father finds out about the boy’s desire for his mother, he will castrate him (castration anxiety)
The boy deals with the conflict this causes by starting to identify with the father and wanting to be like him
His leads to him internalising his father, essentially, incorporating his father into his own psyche
This becomes his superego and, in taken on his father as a part of himself, he takes on the male gender identity
He deals with his desire for his mother by displacing it onto other women

Girls enter the Elektra complex
This starts with the realisation that they have no penis
This leads them to believe that they’ve been castrated, something on which they blame their mother
Because she has no penis, the girl sees herself as powerless, and wishes that she had one (penis envy)
She starts to desire her father, because he has one and becomes jealous and hostile towards her mother, mirroring the Oedipus complex in boys
Eventually, she starts to identify and internalise her mother, developing a superego and a female gender identity
At this point, she represses her desire for a penis and substitutes it for the desire for a baby

Question 29

How have psychodynamic studies gender development

Answer 29

Psychodynamic psychologists have tended to base their theories on case studies of people who were undergoing treatment for psychological issues
Their case study method relies on gathering material from the person being treated and analysing it to identify the latent (hidden) meanings in the things the person thinks, says or does

An example of this approach is Freud’s 1909 case study of ‘Little Hans’, a 5 year old boy with a phobia of horses
Hans became scared of horses after seeing a horse collapse in the street
He was particularly afraid of horses that worse blinkers and he expressed the fear that the horse might bite him
Freud’s interpretation was that Hans’ unconscious mind was using the horse to symbolise his father
Seeing the horse collapse (apparently dead) had reminded Hans of his Oedipal death wish agaisnt his father
This had brought back his castration anxiety to protect himself and he displaced this fear onto horses
His fear of being bitten actually symbolised his fear of castration by his father
Freud’s analysis showed how children deal with the conflicts raised by their desires during the Oedipus complex

Question 30

Oedipus complex summary

Answer 30

During phallic stage, the penis becomes the focus of pleasure and a boy developed sexual feelings towards his mother

They see their father as a rival who is in the way of them having their mother to themselves

They are fearful as they can see that their father is more powerful than them so they fear they could be castrated by their father if he discovers the desire they have towards their mother

To resolve this conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father

They developed a strong identity with their father because their fear of castration is strong

They adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their father and develop male identity. Through the process of identification they become active and dominant

Question 31

Electra complex

Answer 31

During the phallic stage, girls notice that they don’t have a penis and experience penis envy

They see their mother as a love rival standing in the way of them and their father

They believed that they have been castrated by their mother and blame her for the lack of penis

They adopt the the attitudes and behaviours of their mother and develop a female identity. Through the process of identification they become quiet and submissive

They substitute penis envy for their desires to have children, so identity with their mothers

They develop a weaker identity than males because their fear is not as strong as the fear of castration that men feel

Question 32

Psychodynamic approach strength (+counterpoint)

Answer 32

One strength of Freud’s theory is that there is some research support for the role of gender of the Oedipus complex in gender development
For example, Freud’s explanation of gender development means that for boys, ‘normal’ development depends on being raised in a conventional nuclear family with a mother and father figure present and there is some research to support this idea. Refers and Morey (1990) rates the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 based on interviews with the child and their families. Of those who were judged to be ‘gender disturbed’, 75% had neither their biological father nor a substitute father living with them
This is a strength because it does suggest that being raised with no father may have a negative impact upon gender identity, in line with what Freud would predict
However, the vast majority of research does not support a link between absent fathers and problems with gender identity
For example, Green (1978) studied 37 children growing up in non-traditional families (e.g. single mothers) and in all cases but one, the children developed typical gender identities and role behaviours
More recently, Bos and Sandfort (2010) compared data from 68 children where both parents were lesbians with 68 children from conventional nuclear families. Children raised by lesbian parents, while they felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, showed no differences in terms of gender indemnity compared to those raised in the nuclear families
This therefore contradicts Freud’s theory as it suggests that father aren’t necessary for healthy gender identity development

Question 33

Psychodynamic approach limitations

Answer 33

One limitation is the use of Little Hans as Freud’s evidence for the existence of the Oedipus complex
For example, Hans had a very different upbringing to most children. His mother would actually threaten him regularly with castration (if you don’t stop touching that, I’ll send you to the doctor to cut it off) so it is to be expected that he was experiencing high castration anxiety, because he was actually being threatened, whereas the majority of children aren’t threatened with castration by their mothers
This is a limitation because it suggests that due to Hans unusual upbringing, the internal validity is very low because Freud was measuring Hans castration anxiety given to him by his mother rather than an innate castration anxiety

One limitation is that is provides an inadequate account of women’s gender development
For example, Freud wrote much less about the Electra complex than the Oedipus complex. He stated that girls would experience penis envy, but didn’t go further than that and didn’t attempt to explain why. Freud himself admitted that women were a mystery to him and didn’t have a full explanation for their development
This is a limitation because the explanation of gender identity is incomplete and what is being states, Freud himself admitted that he pretty much made it up dye to being unsure, making it invalid

One limitation is in regards to the age of emergence of gender identity
The psychodynamic approach suggests that a child’s gender identity is absent before the age of 3 and it not fully developed until ages 5 to 6. So, before the age of 3, they have no gender identity. However, it has been shown that children do actually start to show gender-biased preferences for tings like toys as young as the age of 1, suggesting that at this age they already have their own idea about their gender identity, much before the age of 3
This is a limitation because it’s showing that the theory has low ecological validity, because evidence form every say life is seemingly disproves the theory

Question 34

Cognitive development explanations introduction

Answer 34

Cognitive-development explanations of gender focus on how a child’s thinking changes as they get older
These changes are universal, meaning that all children go through them
- psychologists refer to this as a consequence of maturation
- as the brain matures, so does thinking
Children discover they are male and female (much like they develop in other ways) and then they identify with members of their own sex

Question 35

Kohlberg’s Theory background

Answer 35

Kohlberg’s theory was heavily influences d by the work of Jean Piaget, who development one of the most well known cognitive-developmental theories, which focuses on the stages of intellectual development
Piaget proposed 4 stages of intellectual development:
1. Sensorimotor stage - approx birth - 2 years
2. Pre-operational stage - approx 2-7 years
3. Concentrate operations stage - approach 7-11 years
4. Formal operations stage - approx 11+ years
We are most interested in findings surrounding the pre-operational stage

1. Egocentrism - the child’s tendency to only be able to see the world from their own point of view - they get less egocentric as they get older
   - this study showed that only children at this higher age in this stage were able to understand that the doll wouldn’t always have the same “Mountain View” as them
2. The development of conservation - the ability to realise that quantity remains constant even when appearance of objects changes
   - for example, young children are unable to understand that the juice remains the same amount when poured into a thinner cup

Question 36

Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 36

Lawrence Kohlberg pioneered the cognitive-developmental theory of gender development in the 1960s
He believed that children go through 3 stages in the development of gender
This child’s thinking becomes more complex, and their understanding becomes greater as they get older and move through the 3 stages

Question 37

Stage 1

Answer 37

Gender identity
2-3 years
At 2 years old, the child can correctly identity that they are a boy or a girl
- this is gender identity
At 3 years old, most children are able to identity other people as boys/men or girls/women’s and can correctly respond to questions such as “which one is like you?” If they are shown a picture of a man or a woman
However, their understanding of gender does not stretch much beyond simple labelling
- very simplistic, limited understanding of gender
Children this age often don’t view gender as fixed
- e.g. a boy aged 2 and half may say “when I grow up, I’ll be Mammy

Question 38

Stage 2

Answer 38

Gender stability
4-5 years
At aged 4, children acquire gender stability
- the realisation that they will always stay the same gender
However, they cannot apply this logic to other people in other situations and will make errors such as believing that people change gender if they engage in activities that bare more often associated with a different gender
- e.g. a nurse who is a man or a mechanic who is a woman
They are also often confused by external changes in appearance
- e.g. may describe a man with long hair as a woman

Question 39

Stage 3

Answer 39

Gender constancy
6-7 years
At around aged 6, children recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations, and this understanding is applied to other people’s genders as well as their own
- they are no longer ‘fooled’ by changes in outward appearance so, while they might still view a man wearing a dress as ‘unusual’, they are able to understand that he is still a man ‘underneath’
Children of thus age begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
- they embark on an active search for evidence that confirms the concept of gender and a tendency towards gender stereotyping beings to emerge at this age

Question 40

Kohlberg’s Theory Strengths

Answer 40

Munro et al, (1984) studied children across cultures and found that children progress through the same stages, outlined by Kohlberg, in these cultures
The cross cultural findings support Kohlberg’s predictions about gender development stages being universal which suggest his theory has validity
However, we don’t know if these studies were carried out in exactly the same way, as it is highly unlikely that the same researcher travelled across all different countries to carry out the same study, and more likely that different researchers were used. We can question the extent to which we can compare the research

Slabs and Frey (1975) conducted research to test the accuracy of Kohlberg’s theory. They interviewed 55 children aged between 2-5 years old. The children were asked questions to determine which stage of Kohlberg’s theory they were at. In the first phase of the experiment, they were shown a picture of a by and a child and asked “which one are you?” To demonstrate gender identity. Next they were asked “were you a tile by or a little girl wen you were a baby” and “when you grow up will you be a mummy or daddy?” To demonstrate gender stability. They found that children responded in line with heat Kohlberg suggested: gedner becomes stable around the age of 3 or 4 years old.
This is a strength because the findings align with Kohlberg’s theory, suggesting that it is correct and there is validity to his work

Slaby and Frey (1975) carried out a follow up study. After several weeks they went on to test Kohlberg’s predictions that children at the gender constancy stage would pay more attention to the behaviour of same-sex models than children further down the stages. They showed the children a film, men on side side of the screen, women on the other, performing various activities. The children that were high in gender constancy showed a greater tendency to watch the same-sex model than those with low gender constancy
This is a strength because higher gender constancy, based off Kohlberg’s predictions would in fact lead to a higher tendency to watch same-sex models, which is what happened. This suggests that Kohlberg’s theory has internal validity.

Damon (1977) told children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls. He asked the children to comment on the story. 4 year olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls if he wanted to but in contrast, 6 year olds thought it was wrong for George to play with dolls
This is a strength because this mirrors Kohlberg’s predictions that the gender constancy stage starts to bring about gender stereotype development, giving his theory validity

Question 41

Kohlberg’s Theory Limitations

Answer 41

It is found that even at a very young age, children show preferences for stereotypical gender specific toys, shown by Huston 1938
This is a limitation because is goes against what Kohlberg would suggest happens as children developed gender as, according to him, gender preferences don’t occur until ages 6-7 in the gender constancy stage. This suggests that the predictions are wrong and lack ecological validity

Martin et al (2002) suggested that there may be different degrees of gender constancy. And initial degree may orient children to the general importance of gender and this may develop before the age of 6. A second degree of constancy which may heighten children’s responsiveness to gender norms (e.g. wearing gender-appropriate clothes) develops later
This is a limitation because it is suggesting that Kohlberg’s theory is overly simplistic and reductionist. Humans are very complicated and development can’t be summed up in a few simple steps

Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys and ‘bad’ abut dong the opposite
This is a limitation because it goes against what Kohlberg suggests happens as children as according to him, children don’t start showing toy preferences until the gender constancy stage at ages 6-7. This suggests that the predictions are wrong and lack ecological validity

Ben (1989) criticised the methodology used in many of these studies. The studies will ask young children to identity men and women through things like their clothes and hairstyles. But in reality, the best way to identify males and females is through physical differences, e.g. genitalia. Ben demonstrated that 40% of children aged 3-5 were able to demonstrate gender constancy if they were show a naked photo of the child to be identified before showing them a picture of the same child dressed
This is a limitation because it questions how accurate Kohlberg’s ways of measuring gender identity were. Children may have gender constancy earlier, and he over estimated of flawed methodology
However, it is important to consider the potential ethical issues of showing children images of this nature, especially of other children

Question 42

What is a gender schema

Answer 42

An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience
They guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour in general

Question 43

Gender Schema Theory

Answer 43

According to Martin & Halverson, once a child has established gender identity at around age 2-3, he or she will actively begin to search the environment for information hat encouraged the development of gender schema
- these could include boys like blue and have sort hair and girls like dolls and wear dresses
These schemas are developed through their interactions with other children and adults as well as the media
- agents of socialisation
This contrasts with Kohlberg’s Kew that an active search for evidence to confirm gender concepts only begin at the gender constancy stage around aged 7

As the child gets older (as they get exposed to further agents of socialisation) their gender schema expand to include a wide range of behaviours as personality traits
These are likely to be formed around stereotypes and provide a framework that determines behaviour as well as the child’s understanding of itself (e.g. I am a girl and therefore play with dolls)

By 6 years of age, children have a fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate fr their gender
For this reason, they are likely to misremember or disregard information that doesn’t fit with their existing schema
- for example, if they were shown an image of a man sewing, they may misremember this and recall it as a woman sewing, think it was a man dong a task such as woodwork

Children tend to to have a much better understanding of the schema that is appropriate to their own gender (in group)
This in group identity also helps boost a child’s self-esteem
This is consistent with the idea that children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity, rather than that of the opposite gender ( out group)
As children are largely ignoring information that isn’t consistent with their in-group schema, this means that gender schemas have very strong effects on what children remember and how they perceive the world

It isn’t until children are around 8 years old that they develop an elaborate schema for both genders as opposed to just their own (they have both an in group and out group schema)

Question 44

GST strengths

Answer 44

One strength is that the GST has supporting evidence
Martin and Halverson’s (1983) own study found that children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour (such as a woman washing the dishes) than photographs of gender-inappropriate behaviour (such as a woman fixing the car) when tested a week later. Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them so that gender behaviour was now appropriate
This is a strength because it shows that the theory has high internal validity

One strength is that there is supporting research accords cultures
Kendra Cherry (2019) argues that gender schema not only influence how people process information but also what counts as culturally-appropriate gender behaviour. Traditional cultures, that believe women should take a nurturing role and that men should pursue a career, will raise children who form schemas which are consistent with this view. In societies where perceptions of gender have less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to acquire more fluid gender schemas. The point is that Martin and Halverson’s theory can explain ow gender schema are transmitted between members of a society and how cultural differences in gender stereotypes come about
This is a strength because it adds population validity

Question 45

GST Limitation

Answer 45

One limitation of GST is that there is contradicting evidence
A longitudinal study of 82 children (Zosuls et al. 2009) looked at the onset of gender identity. Data was obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language from age 9 to 21 months, alongside videotapes analysis of the children playing. The key measure of gender identity was taken to be how and when children started to label themselves as a boy or a girl. This occurred, on average, at 19 months - almost as soon as children begin to communicate, which suggests that children actually have gender identity before this but just can’t communicate it yet.
This is a limitation because it suggests that children actually have gender identity from a much younger age than thr GST claims, suggesting that there is low external validity
However, it may not be appropriate to argue about specific ages for Martin and Halverson’s theory. They suggest that the key point is the shifts in a child’s thinking and that the ages are averages rather than absolutes. It is possible that many children may move through stages quicker or slower than others. It is the sequence of development that is more important

Question 46

GST beyond textbook strength

Answer 46

Other research carried out is consistent with Martin and Halverson’s findings
For example, Bradbard et al (1986) found that 4-9 year old boys and girls would play with toys labelled as boy toys or girl toys, despite the fact the toys were gender neutral. Also, when children were examined one week later, they still remembered the toys that there called as boy or girl toys, showing that children actively seek the toys classed as in-group above any others
Similarly, Boston and Levy (1991) investigate whether knowledge about gender stereotypical activities was different for boys and girls. They compared girls’ and boys’ ability to assemble sequences of pictures in the correct order. The sequence showed activities that where stereotypically consistent with being a boy or a girl (e.g. cooking or DIY). The children had to sequence 4 pictures. The children were better at sequencing the activities that corresponded stereotypically to their own gender. This suggests that they had a more developed understanding of activities that were relevant to them
This is a strength because it shows there is a reliability in research support for gender schema theory, in turn suggesting that the theory has validity. It suggests that the theory is a good explanation of real life and the way children think

Question 47

Kohlberg vs GST

Answer 47

Similarities:
- understanding of gender age 2-3
- references to agents of socialisation
- active search for gender affirming information and evidence
- both cognitive development theories
Differences:
(Kohlberg)
- don’t start seeking gender affirming things until around age 6-7
- involves stages: identity, stability, constancy
(GST)
- start seeking gender affirming things aged 2-3
- don’t have an understanding of the other gender (out group) until aged 8
- more emphasis on schemas
- in-group understanding comes first at 6, followed by out-group at 8

Question 48

Gender Explanations - Social Learning Theory

Answer 48

Central idea is that we copy what she see (“monkey see, monkey do”)
The process whereby a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to me like them or who they want to be like (a person who possesses qualities that the child sees as desirable) is called identification
We call these people models and they can be anything such as older siblings, parents, peers, celebrities, teachers and friends
However there are 2 meanings of modelling in SLT:
1. The demonstration of behaviour that might be imitated by an observer
When an adult acts in a particular way around a child, they are modelling that behaviour
- e.g. a dad shows their son DIY
2. The learning from the observer’s perspective
When a child copies the behaviours that have seen others do, they are modelling the behaviour they have witnessed
- e.g. a little girl putting makeup in after seeing her mam do it
There are 4 meditational (cognitive) processes that are central to learning any behaviour, including gender behaviour
These are:
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motivation
(These are cognitive processes)
4. Motor reproduction

Question 49

Motivation in Gender Development

Answer 49

One of the meditational processes in SLT is motivation
- we have to have the desire to repeat the behaviour, which links to reinforcement and punishment
Positive reinforcement - the behaviour is repeated because we receive something nice
Negative reinforcement - the behaviour is repeated became something unpleasant is removed
Positive punishment - the behaviour stops/reduces because we receive something unpleasant
Negative punishment - the behaviour stops/reduces because something nice is removed

The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement
It is through differential reinforcement that they learn their gender identity
This reinforcement may be direct or indirect
Direct reinforcement - child themselves is reinforced through demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypical gender-appropriate that they have seen others modelling. In addition, direct punishment is when the child themselves is published
For example, young girls may be directly reinforced if they are carrying out an activity like baking
- they might be praised for their food being tasty or how clever they are
- they will continue baking
A young boy may be punished for playing with dolls
- he might have the doll taken away, laughed and mocked or shouted at
- he will stop playing with dolls despite enjoying it

Indirection or vicarious reinforcement/punishment is when the child notices the consequences of another person’s behaviour
If the consequences are favourable, the likelihood of the child imitating it increases
If the consequences are not favourable (punished), the likelihood of a child imitating it decreases

Question 50

SLT strengths

Answer 50

Smith and Lloyd (1978) dresses 4-6 month old babies either in boys’ or girls’ clothes (regardless of the actual sex of the baby). When observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be boy were given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be encouraged to be adventurous and chive. When the same babies were dressed as girls, they were more likely to be handed a cuddly toy, told they were pretty and reinforced for being passive

Cross cultural findings that show variations in gender roles between cultures (e.g. Mead’s study of three tribes in Papua New Guinea) are consistent with the idea that gender role behaviour is learned. However, a number of studies have found that parents do not directly teach gender role behaviours to their children through selective reinforcement and punishment but that children acquire gender appropriate behaviour nonetheless. It may therefore be that the learning of gender one’s occurs through processes other than those specified by SLT

A number of studies have shown that girls and boys are reinforced and punished for different features. For example, Dweck et al (1978) found that teachers reinforced boy for getting things right but reinforced girls for working neatly. However, many studies were conducted in the US in the 1970s, and their findings may not reflect gender socialisation in other times and places

Question 51

SLT limitations

Answer 51

Social learning theory has difficulty explaining how children’s gender changes as they get older. It also cannot easily account for how children’s preparedness to imitate a gender role behaviour depends on more whether the gender is seen as gender appropriate than the sex of the model demonstrating it. These findings suggest that cognitive processes play a greater role in the leaning of gender role than SLT allows for

There is also the issue that some aspects of gender role behaviour appears to be universal tom all cultures. For example, men are consistently found to be more aggressive than women’s, regardless of culture. Similarly, there are cross-cultural similarities in the features women and men find desirable in potential reproductive partners (Buss et al, 1990). These universal features suggest that some aspects of gender role are the result of innate, genetic influences that SLT doesn’t take account of

Question 52

Influences of culture & media on gender roles introduction

Answer 52

A number of explanations of gender development see gender-role behaviour as determined or at least influences by the environment and socialisation

Question 53

Tchambuli/Chambri people of Papua New Guinea

Answer 53

Often an area of gender study as in this culture, women are often the dominant, impersonal and managerial figures and men take the less responsible and dependant role
This if often studied as it provides the socially constructed nature of gender roles and it therefore supports nurture
These societies are often found in the Chambri Lakes regions in the East Sepik province of Papua New Guinea

Question 54

Khasi people of India

Answer 54

The Khasi tribe, consisting of 7 sub tribes, is a tribe where matrilineality is practised over partilineality
This means that children brown in the community will take their mother’s last name and laws say that all of the wealth or property of parents should only by inherited by daughters
Husbands are thought to have no social roles deemed important
These tribes are often found in the Khasis area of the eastern part of Meghalaya in the Khasi and Janitia Hills

Question 55

Ede people of Vietnam

Answer 55

The Ede people are another example of a matriarchal society that follows a matrilineal system in society
It is customary that when men married, they move in with their wife’s family and have very little influence on the decisions made by their in-laws
The women are the most powerful people in the family
These groups are long-standing residents of the Central Highlands
The group is also considered to be one of the more economically prosperous of Vietnam
In their houses, they have separate stair cases for males (in the front of the house) and females (in the back of the house)

Question 56

Māori culture of New Zealand

Answer 56

The Māori culture is another culture where the gender roles are different
However in this case, there is no gender hierarchy and everyone is considered to be equal
Both genders are considered essential parts in the collective whole (something that is a very big focus within this culture)
Women in particular played a key role in linking the past with the present and future within the tribe
The culture is also very accepting of gender fluidity and the therm “Irarere) has been used to describe non conforming gender
- this term translates to gender-fluid in te reo Māori

Question 57

Cross-cultural research

Answer 57

Cross-cultural research is important because of its valuable,r contribution to the nature-nurture debate
If a particular gender-role behaviour appears to be consistent across culture, this would support the nature side of the debate
This is because it discredits nurture, as if you grow up anywhere and have the same gender-role, there has to be a genetic component
However, if a particular gender-role behaviour appears to be culturally-specific, this would support nurture, as the difference shows that it has to be down to how you were raised

Question 58

Cultural similarities (nature)

Answer 58

Munroe & Munroe (1975) found that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines, with men typically the ‘breadwinners’ and women the ‘nurtures’

Whiting & Edwards (1988) observed the behaviour of children in the USA, Mexico, Japan, India, the Philippines and Kenya. They found that gender behaviour was very similar to Western stereotypes and that there were clear differences is male and female behaviour. For example, in societies where children were expected to work to contribute to the family, girls were more likely to look after younger siblings and do housework and boys were more likely to look after animals

Williams & Best (1990) tested 2800 students in 30 different countries. They were given a 300 adjectives list and they were asked to decide whether the adjective applies to men or women. This was a forced-choice questionnaire, there was no facility to indicate that the adjective applied to both genders. Men were seen as dominant, aggressive and independent whereas women were send as dependent and nurturing
- however could cause issues as they might have thought both but didn’t have the option to state this

We can conclude that gender roles can be seen as similar throughout the world, suggesting they are innate
- although there are flaws in the research

Question 59

Cultural differences (nurture)

Answer 59

Mead’s study in Papua New Guinea (1935)
Margaret Mead studies 3 tribes who lives totally independently of each other within 100-mile radius in New Guinea
The Tchambuli tribe:
- women were dominant
- men displayed what would be interpreted as female behaviour in the West whereas the fmerales exhibited what would be seen as male behaviour in Western societies
The Mundugumor tribe:
- both men and women were aggressive, violent, hard and arrogant
- both genders displaying a Western stereotype of masculinity
The Arapesh tribe:
- both men and women were gentle, cooperative and caring
- both genders displaying a Western stereotype of femininity

Because tribes that are living independently from each other with no contact with the outside world, and therefore not influenced by Western Cultures were different, we can conclude that gender roles are very independent and therefore nurture

Question 60

Cross-cultural research Evaluation

Answer 60

There are problems with cross-cultural research
Ethnocentrism refers to the use of our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgment about other groups. Hare-Mustin and Maracek proposed that there are 2 different ways that psychological research be culturally biased due to enthnocentrism
Alpha bias: emphases the stereotypical biases or characteristics between men and women, usually presenting one as ‘better than the other’
Beta bias: ministers differences between the sexes

It is therefore important that any gender differences found between cultural groups are real differences and not a result of cultural bias. One way to do this is that if psychological research is being carried out in non-Western societies and cultures then this research should be carried out by indigenous psychologists rather than Western psychologists. This means that they won’t be biased to what you find, save time and money, less issues of language Barriers, prevents people from changing their behaviour when countering people from a different culture
However, this didn’t happen in the Mead research. She went into the tribes herself while being an American women

Question 61

Media and gender roles

Answer 61

The role of the media can be explained by SLT
The media provides role model with whom the children (and adults) identity with and whose they want to imitate
It has a powerful influence in the acquisition, shaping and maintenance of gender roles because it provides information about what is considered as acceptable and the likely outcome of displaying some behaviours
For example, receiving compliments for wearing a pretty dress if you are a women but ridicule and rejection if you are a man
It is invade and persistent
It provides children with a constant flow of information as to what gender behaviour is appropriate
The media presents genders in different ways:
- males are more represented than females in most TV programmes, including children’s programmes
- males are shown in a wider range of roles and often in higher status position than females
- males are presented as dominant, in positions of power, active, independent, ambiguous andf aggressive
- females are presented as submissive, advice-seeking, nurturing, dependent and family oriented
- females are more domestic
- female story plots often involve a love interest
- females are more appearance oriented
- female superheroes are overly sexualised

This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-typical behaviour

Question 62

Studies into role of media

Answer 62

Several studies have shown that behaviour displayed in the media can influence gender roles
For example, Williams (1986) carried out a two year long natural experiment in an isolated community in Canada, where TV had been unavailable before the study
The sample was children aged 6-11, who were in one of three groups:
- Notel (no TV, but where TV was now being introduced)
- Onetel (one TV channel)
- Multitel (access to several TV channels)
Children were asked to rate appropriateness of certain behaviours for boys and girls of their age at the beginning of the study and then again 2 years later
Details of the study:
Operationalised IV = number of channels provided to children
Operationalised DV = the appropriateness of certain behaviours
Why was a this a natural experiment = naturally occurring, study was conducted in an isolated community with no TVs
Results:
Notel group - gender-steryotypcial at the start of the study = low, gender-stereotypical attitudes at the end of study = low
Onetel group - gender-stereotypical attitudes at the start of the study = low, gender-stereotypical attitudes at the end of the study = moderate
Multitel group - gender-stereotypical attitudes at start of study = low, gender-stereotypical attitudes at end of study = high
Conclusion:
The TV media heavily pushes stereotypes

Question 63

Media and gender roles strengths

Answer 63

Strong supporting empirical evidence
For example:
- Leary’s (1982) correlational study suggested that the more TV a child watched, the more likely they were to have stereotypes about different gender roles
- Children without television have been shown to be less stereotyped in their gender role attitudes (Kimball, 1986)
- furthermore, children who view programs with non-traditional gender roles tend to have non-traditional gender role perceptions (Rosenwasser, Lingenfelter and Harrington, 1989)
Adds external validity to the theory that media influences gender roles

Research has been conducted to show thar it can also reduce stereotypes
Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced amongst school-age children when they were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. Similarly, Johnson and Ettema reported on thousands of 9-12 year old children who watched a programme called “Freestyle”, which was designed especially to reduce gender stereotypes, every week for 13 weeks. They found a moderate reduction of gender role stereotypes following exposure to this series
Shows media can change already existing stereotypes if the content is produced in a way that can do so

Question 64

Media and gender roles limitations

Answer 64

Theory is reductionist
Durkin (1985) argues that even very young children aren’t passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. Children make choices as to the programmes they watch and how they respond to the information presented in the media. What seems to be a bigger influence than the media here is the norms within the child’s family. If the media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family, then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind. If not, then representations are likely to be rejected
There is a range of other factors that can effect gender stereotypes, not just the media, but this ignores it

We cannot establish a cause and effect relationship
Factors such as the influence of other socialising agents like parents, peers and schools. It could be that children’s itch inflexible gender stereotypes watch more TV because in confirms their schemas
We cannot be sure that it is the media influencing how children see gender roles, or if they are just looking for the information that enforces they stereotypes that they already have developed

Question 65

Atypical gender development - key terms

Answer 65

Cisgender - when someone’s gender identity matches the sex that was assigned at birth
- statistically mostly likely gender identify
Atypical gender - people who don’t follow the male-masculine/female-feminist binary
- they are gender diverse
Transgender - gender identity doesn’t align with sex assigned at birth
Non-binary - gender identity isn’t make or female but a blend of both
Gender fluid - individual moves between gender identifies
Agedner - individual doesn’t identify with any gender

Question 66

Gender dysphoria

Answer 66

Definition:
- mismatch between sex assigned at brith based on external/anatomical biological sexual characteristics and psychological gender identity
- people with gender dysphoria experience psychological distress, often saying they feel trapped in the wrong body
- as gender dysphoria is a mental health condition involving psychological distress it is important to be clear that not all gender diverse people have gender dysphoria
According to the DSM-5, for a person to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria:
- there must be a marked difference between the individual’s expressed/experiences gender and the gender others would assign them
- it must continue for at least 6 months
- in children, the desire to be of the other gender must be present and verbalised
- this condition causes clinically significant stress to impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning
Gender dysphoria is manifested in a variety of ways, including:
- strong desire to be treated as the other gender
- to be rid of one’s sex characteristics
- a strong conviction that one has feelings and reaction typical of the other gender
Why do people experiencing gender dysphoria need a diagnostic term?:
- it protects their access to care and won’t be used against them in social, occupational or legal areas

Question 67

Biological explanation - brain sex theory

Answer 67

Suggests that gender dysphoria has a basis in brain structure
There are dimorphic brain structures in humans (i.e. physical differences in the brains of males and females) an brain sex theory proposes that people with gender dysphoria have a brain more physically similar to the gender they identify with, not their biological sex
One key area of interest in gender dysphoria is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)
This area is larger in men than in women, but studies of transgender women have found the BST to be a similar size and have similar number of neurones that is typical in biological female brain
Other areas of the brain that have been linked to gender dysphoria include the hypothalamic area and white matter (deeper tissues of the brain, there are regional differences in the amount of white matter in male and female brains)