Forensic Psychology

Question 1

Cesare Lombroso

Answer 1

Lombroso was a 19th century criminologist
In 1871, he met Giuseppe Villegas, a thief and arsonist
Lombroso found him interesting and after his death, he conducted a post-mortem and discovered that his subject had an indentation at the back of his skull, which he felt resembled that found in apes
In his 1876 book Criminal Man he argued that the criminal is a separate species, one that is found between primitive and modern humans
He claimed criminality was heritable and that a “born criminal” could be determined by the physical shape of their head and face because they have atavistic (primitive) features that are a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution

In total, Lombrosos examined the facial and cranial features of around 383 dead criminals and 3839 living ones and concluded that 40% of crimina acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics

Question 2

Lombroso’s Own Words on this area

Answer 2

“At the sight of that skull, I seemed to see all of a sudden, lightened up as a vast plain under flaming sky, the problem of thr naure of the criminal - an atavistic being who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of primitive humanity and the inferior animals. Thus were explained anatomically the enormous jaws, high cheek bones, prominent supercilliary arches, solitary lines in the palms, extreme size of orbits, handle shaped or sessile ears found in criminals, savages and apes, insensibility to pain, extremely acute sight, tattooing, excessive criminals, love or orgies and the irrestitible craving for evil for its own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim, but to mutilate bthe corpse, tear its flesh, and drink its blood”

Question 3

Features of different types of criminals

Answer 3

According to Lombroso you can tell what kind of crime someone will commit by the way they look
For example:
- a thief can be identified by their expressive face, mutual dexterity, and small, wandering eyes
- habitual murderers (serial killers) have cold, glassy stares,bloodshot eyes, big-hawk like noses and curly hair
- rapists have ‘jug ears’ and thick lips
- female criminals are shorter and more wrinkled and have darker hair and smaller skulls than ‘normal’ women
- women who commit crimes of passion have prominent lower jaws
Other physical markers included dark skins, extra toes, extra nipples or extra fingers
Besides physical traits, Lombroso also suggested that insensitivity to pain, the use of slang, tattoos and unemployment were also aspects of the born offender

Question 4

Lombroso strengths

Answer 4

Lombroso was very influential in a number of ways. He pioneered the use of scientific methods in criminology, this giving the subject a scienfitic credibility. His work heralded the begging of offender profiling. He labelled prisons “criminal universities”, suggesting that prisoners came out much worse than they went in - quite perceptive and relevant today when you look at today’s rate of reoffending

A recent Chinese study has produced research that suggests facial features really can give a criminal way. ID photos of 1856 Chinese men, half of whom had a previous conviction, were entered into any artifice intelligence programme. They found it wrongly flagged in connect men as criminals 6% of the time but correctly identified 83% of the real criminals

Several pieces of reserach suggest that less attractive individuals are more liekly to be convicted. For example, in one mock trial study it was found that when the defendant was attractive, guilty verdicts were found 56% of the time against 76% for unattractive defendant (Castellow et al,1990)

Question 5

Lombroso’s limitations

Answer 5

There is a cause and effect issue with the Castellow reserach study and others like it. We can’t say with certainty that is the physical appearance of the individual that cuases them to commit criminal acts. It is far more likely that it is the case that juries are less liekly to convict attractive people, not because they are innocent, but because of a psychological effect known as the “Halo Effect” which states that we are far more likely to have positive thoughts and emotions about attractive people than unnatracotve people

Other limitations include:
- not everyone with atavistic features is a criminal and not all criminals have them. For example, Goring (1913) used non-criminal control group and found no significant differences in terms of physical features between criminals and non-criminals
- lack of accuracy due to disfigurement
- extremely deterministic and autumns that we cannot escape destiny
- scientific racism - DeLisi (1912) pointed out that many of the atavistic features defined by Lombroso are specific to people to African descent

Question 6

Genetic explanation introduction

Answer 6

Genetic explanations propose that offending behaviour is inherited as one or more (polygenic) genes predispose people to commit crimes
- some studies that are used to investigate the effects of genetics are twin and family studies

Question 7

Genetics: Twin studies

Answer 7

Christiansen (1977) examined over 3,500 twin pairs in Denmark’s and i9dendited concordance rates of criminal behaviour:
- Male MZ = 35%
- male DZ = 13%
- female MZ = 21%
- female DZ = 8%
Raine (1993) reviewed reserach on the delinquent behaviour of twins and found 52% concordance rate for MZ twins compared to 21% for DZ twins

Question 8

Genetics: twin studies evaluation

Answer 8

One problem with using twin studies to study genetics and behaviour is that we cab’s divide between nature and nurture and most of them have had the exact same upbringing
To overcome this, we can use twins who grew up in different environments and therefore any results that are gained can’t be attributed to nurture

Question 9

Genetics: Adoption Studies

Answer 9

Crowe (1972) compared a group of adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record, to control a group of adopted children whose biological mother did not have a criminal record
It was found that if a biological mother had a criminal record, 50% of the adopted children also had one by the time they were 18
In the control group, ony 5% of the adopted children had a criminal record by the time they were 18
This suggests that regardless of the changed environment, children seemed biologically predisposed to criminality, so supporting a genetic explanation

Question 10

Genetics: Candidate Genes

Answer 10

Brunner et al. (1993) conducted an analysis if a large family in the Netherlands, a number of which had been responsible for various counts of anti-social and criminal behaviour including attempted rape, exhibitionism and arson
The researchers found that the males had a genetic condition with a defective MAOA gene (females only carry this condition), which causes a deficiency in monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme responsible for the metabolism of neurotransmitters such as serotonin

• so a defective MAOA gene
• abnormal levels for MAOA enzyme
• abnormal serotonin levels
• unregulated moods and possible criminal behaviour

A more recent genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders found evidence of not only low MAOA activity, but also low activity from the CDH13 gene
This gene is involved in the communication between brain cells and is linked to the control of impulsive behaviour, substance abuse and ADHD
The analysis found that about 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributed to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes
The conclusion here is that individuals can inherit genetic conditions which make them prone to offending behaviour

Question 11

Genetics: Diathesis-stress (model)

Answer 11

If you have a genetic-vulnerability to something and you experience the environmental factors (triggering events) you are most likely to develeop it
The graph to illustrate this is a positive linear graph
These could be applied to criminal behaviour in:
- upbringing
- alcoholism/drug abuse
- adverse childhood experiences

Question 12

Genetics: Diathesis-stress Evalution

Answer 12

One strength is that there is support for the diathesis-stress model for offending behaviour
For example, a tidy of 13,000 Danish adoptees was conducted by Mendick et al. (1984)
The findings were as follows:
- when neither the biological no adoptive parents had criminal convictions, 13.5% of the adoptees did
- when either the biological parents or adoptive parents had criminal records, 20% of the adoptees did
- when both the biological and the adaptive parents had crimina convictions, 24.5% of the adoptees did
This provides support for the diathesis-stress model by giving the theory external validity escpaically in such a big group
However, it is important to note that while this study does show an increase in criminal behaviour in accordance of the model there were over 75% of adoptees who didn’t have any criminal record as all, suggesting that this doesn’t always apply

Question 13

Genetics: General Evaluation

Answer 13

One limitation is that most of the genetic reserach on criminal behaviour looks at a limited range of criminal behaviour
For example, crimes such as those involving violence and psychopathy
This is a limitation because criminal behaviour includes a wide range of crimes such as theft, fraud and drug abuse. This means that a genetic explanation of crime needs to do further reserach into the link between genes and non-violent crimes in order for it to be seen as a moe ‘complete’ theory

A second limiations is that genetic explanations are presented as if the genes a person is born with determine later behaviour
For example, the lawyers of Stephen Mobley (who murdered the managers of a Domino’s in Gerogia, USA) argues thar as his family history showed many previous generations with violent behaviour then he should be tested to see if he had the criminal variant of the MAOA gene, which would mean he was therefore ‘born to be a criminal’ and couldn’t be held responsible for this behaviour
This is a limiation because our genes do not fully determine our behaviour. Not all people who are brown with ‘criminal genes’ go on to commit offences. The judge in the case of Mobley agrees with this and this was not used as a defence. He was executed in 2005

One strength of the genetic explanations is that they can have practical applications
For example, if children have parents who have violent criminal records, this could suggest that they may have inherited the ‘criminal genes’ and therefore targeted interventions such as therapies, behaviour modification therapies (e.g. anger management) or support groups could be put into place to help the child and nature that they don’t go on to show criminal behaviour
This is a strength because it shows that people can be helped due to this theory, and crime rates could be lowered by doing so

Question 14

Neural explanations: introduction

Answer 14

Evidence suggests that there may be differences in the brains of offenders and non-offenders
Neural explanations of offending behaviour can be separated into neurochemcial and neurophysiological
- neurochemcial refers to the chemical processes occurring the the nerve tissue and the nervous system (e.g. neurotransmitters in the brain)
- neurophysiology refers the the physiology of the nervous system (physiology is a branch of biology that deals with how the body works) and looks at the structure of the brain

Question 15

Neurochemcial explanations

Answer 15

There are several neurotransmitters that have been linked to criminal behaviour
Serotonin - abnormal levels can cause you brain to over or under function and effect processes such as impulse control
The CDH13 and the MAOA gene can effec t the enzyme levels that break down serotonin and therefore causing high leaves of it, meaning that neural signal sent to regularly
Dopamine - in some cases, increases in dopamine can cause increases in certain behaviours such as aggression and impulsivity
This can be exaggerated with people whop have deficits ton their reward system and don’t gain pleasure from normal pleasurable activities and instead gain pleasure from criminal behaviour
This causes an increase in repeating the criminal behaviours to gain pleasure

Question 16

Neurochemcial explanations evaluation

Answer 16

Strength - Scarborough and Raine (1993), found abnormally low levels of serotonin in 29 studies examining offending behaviour
Strength - Cherek et al (2002) investigated the levels of impulsivity and aggression in males with a history of conduct disorder and criminal behaviour. Half received a placebo for 21 days whereas the other half were administered paroxetine (an SSRI antidepressant). Those who received paroxetine showed a significant decrease in impulsive responses, and aggression declines by the end of the study
Limitation - the issue of cause an effect. A lot of this research is done on people who have been caught and are in prison. So is the low serotonin what is causing the offending behaviour (which is what this theory suggests) or is it that offending behaviour results in prison time which results in depression, which is also associated with low serotonin levels and activity?

Question 17

Neurophysiological: Amygdala

Answer 17

One part of the brain implicated in offending behaviour is the amygdala, which is part of the lambic system
The amygdala was first implicated in emotional behaviour by Papez (1937) and Maclean (1952). It is highly connected: it is neurally linked to the hypothalamus, the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex in addition to other parts of the brain
It therefore has a widespread influence on brain functioning and ultimately on behaviours associated with emotion, motivation and social interaction
It plays a major role in how we assess and respond to environmental threats, hence its importance in determining aggressive behaviour
It has been suggested that the amygdala dysfunction plays a role in criminal behaviour
Amygdala dysfunction:
- reduced amygdala dysfunction - proactive aggression - cold blooded, planned, premeditated - e.g. first degree murder
- increased amygdala function - reactive aggression - hot blooded, angry, spontaneous

Question 18

Neurophysiological: Amygdala Evolution

Answer 18

Strength - Glenn et al (2009) studied 17 ppts (small sample size) with varying degrees of psychopathy. They underwent fMRI scans of their brain while making judgements about dilemmas such as “should you s,other your crying baby to save yourself ans others hiding from terrorists who may be alerted by the sound?”(doesn’t happen everyday). An association between psychopathy and reduced amygdala activity during decision-making in emotional moral dilemmas such as these

Strength - Cocsro et al (2007) investigated the effects of he amygdala on aggression. By studying people with intermittent explosive disorder. They were asked to view images of faces at the same time as having an fMRI of their brain. Compared to non-IED controls, the participants with IED showed high levels of amygdala activity when they viewed angry faces (an everyday signal of a threat)

Question 19

Neurophysiological: Frontal lobes

Answer 19

Other brain areas besides the amygdala are also important
Another part of the brain linked with offending behaviour is the control lobes
These have been linked to higher functions such as self-control, regulation of impulsive behaviour and inhibiting aggression
Raine et al (1997) studied 41 violent offenders and compares the activity in their prefrontal cortex to 41 non-criminals (including 6 schizophrenics) using PET scans
The violent offenders showed significantly less activity in prefrontal lobe than the other ppts suggesting less control over impulsive behaviour
The pre frontal lobe develops relatively late, sometimes not fully developed until early 20s and later in males
This may explain the peak in antisocial behaviour by male teenagers and young adults

Question 20

Neurophysiological: Frontal lobes evaluation

Answer 20

Strength - Brower and Price (2001) found a link between frontal lobe dysfunction and violent crime
Strength - Kandel and Freed (1989) looked at frontal lobe damage and anti-social behaviour, findings that there was a tendency for such individuals to exhibit emotional instability,a failure to consider the consequences of their actions or to adapt their behaviour in response to external cues. These traits would seemingly be a result of impaired functioning in the frontal lobes, a region responsible for planning behaviour

Limitation - the nature of some research into neurophysiology is often correlational, which means that there is no clear way to show cause and effect. For example, the structural brain abnormalities found in Raine et al (1997) could be a cause of offending behaviour or the result of some environmental factor, which in turn makes them moe likely to come a criminal. This matters because it highlights the complexity of the relationship between biology and behaviour and suggests that further investigation is requires

Question 21

Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality

Answer 21

Hans Eysenck (1947) developed what is now a well-established theory of personality by analysing the results of responses to a personality questionnaire of 700 soldiers who were bind treated for neurotic disorders (anxiety disorders, likely PTSD due to being in war) at the mental hospital where he worked
He believe that personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit
His initial theory suggested that personality can be measured on two dimensions:
1. Introversion-extraversion (E)
2. Neuroticism-stability (N)
He later added a third dimension
3. Psychoticism-stability (P)

Question 22

Introversion/extraversion

Answer 22

Extraverts (E) are sociable and lively but become bored very quickly while introverts (I) are more reserved and quiet and more in control of their emotions
Extraverts have an underactive nervous system (specifically cerebral cortex - low levels of arousal) which means they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours
They a;sp tend to no condition (learn) easily and therefore are less likely to learn from their mistakes

Question 23

Neuroticism/stability

Answer 23

Individuals in high neuroticism (N) have high levels of anxiety and can be moody, irritable and irrational
Those high in stability (S) are more controlled and even tempered
Neurotic individuals have a high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system (ANS - autonomic nervous system)
- they respond very quickly to situations of threat (fight-or-flight)
This means they tend to be nervous, jumpy and over anxious and their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict
It is also thought that this affects the limbic system which control emotions and emotional response which leads to more irrational responses e.g. aggression

Question 24

Psychoticism/normality

Answer 24

Those high in the psychoticism (P) scale are impulsive, aggressive, cold and uncaring
They are suggested to have higher levels of testosterone and are unemotional and prone to aggression
Also likely to have an overproduction of dopamine which leads to them being more impulsive and aggressive

Question 25

Measuring our personality

Answer 25

Our personality can be measured using the EPQ
This gives you three words to describe your personality
1. Extroverted or introverted
2. Neurotic or stable
3. Psychotic or normal
The combination you are going to see in a criminal personality is:
1. Extroverted - you are going to want to seek out more stimulating activities to help ensure that you aren’t bored and going to make impulsive descisions
2. Neurotic - you are going to react to situations with high levels of anxiety, in fight-or-flight, that don’t necessarily require it and you may react in an unreasonable way
3. Psychotic - show man of the traits often associated with criminal behaviour such as aggression, uncaring (less sympathetic), impatient and cold

Question 26

Inheriting our personality

Answer 26

The type of personality a person has and the activity of the nervous system which they inherit both affect the extent to which the individual is affected by socialisation, which occurs in childhood (e.g. don’t break the law) and aims to teach children essential social communication skills as well as the value of delayed gratification
People with high E and N scored have nervous systems that made them difficult to condition
As a result, they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses (less likely to learn through punishment)and consequently they would be more likely to act anti socially in situations where the opportunity presented itself
Eysenck therefore saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification - offenders are impatient and cannot wait for things

Question 27

Eysenck’s theory of the strengths

Answer 27

Rushton and Christjon (1981) compared E, N and P scores with self-reports of delinquency in schoolchildren and students. They found that those who reported higher levels of delinquency also higher levels of delinquency also scored higher on E, P and N. These correlations are consistent with Eysenck’s predictions

Eysenck’s theory suggests that the underlying tendencies that eventually manifest themselves as criminal behaviour are detectable in childhood and that is may be possible to modify the socialisation experiences of high-risk individuals so that they don’t develop into offenders. This could lead to interventions based on parenting or early treatment for delinquency and hence may be of great practical benefit in reducing criminal behaviour

Eysenck & Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 prisoners’ scores on the EPQ with 2422 controls. The prisoners recorded higher than average scored on E, N and P compared to the controls

Question 28

Eysenck’s theory limitations

Answer 28

Studies of ‘official’ delinquency (comparing convicted offenders with non-offenders) do not produce clear cut results. Farmington et al (1982) reviewed 16 studies of criminal relationships between E, N and P measures with criminal convictions. They found that in the majority of case offenders scored higher on P and N but not on E. Hollin (1989) notes a similar pattern of findings: offenders generally show higher P and N scores but not necessarily higher E scores. It is not clear why the relationship between E and offending is so inconsistent

There is also the issue that research has made heavy use of comparisons between convicted offenders and the general population. Such research inevitably excludes those who commit crimes and are not caught and convicted. Consequently, many of these studies may only be telling us about the personality characteristics of ‘unsuccessful’ offenders.

There is an argument that the theory itself is circular. Take the example of the psychoticism scale. To measure P, responders answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a series of statements about whether they act aggressively and selfishly. Their scores on such scales are then used to ‘explain’ why high P-scores act aggressively and antisocially. This is unsatisfactory

Research in this area relies on self-report measures

The EPQ takes on a reductionist approach to assessing and measuring personality, as suggested by Mischel (1988). Personality traits are unlikely to all be accounted for using only 3 dimensions and measured by being assigned a single number. These traits are also likely to change depending on who we interact with and under what circumstances, this not always being stable

It is unlikely that there is only one criminal personality type, as suggested by Digman’s Five Factor Model which suggests that there are additional dimensions along which personality can be measured. These include extraverison, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience (or intellect)

Eysenck’s criminal personality theory may also suffer form cultural bias, due to the largely Western culture from which the sample was drawn, as suggested by Bartol and Holanchock (1979). For example, these researchers found that a group of Hispanic convicts were less Extravert compares to non-criminals (a control group), which suggests that Eysenck’s theory is not universal and so lacks generalisability to all cultures

Question 29

Level of Moral Reasoning: Introduction

Answer 29

Kohlberg was interested in how out sense of right an wrong develop - he called this out moral development
In order to test how our senses of right and wrong develop, he charged a research study in which he asked 75 American boys between the age of 10-16 to discuss three hypothetical moral dilemmas, prompted by a set of 10 or more open-ended questions
Their answers and their reasoning were analysed to identify common themes
Each boy was reinterviewed every three years over a 12 year period

One of these dilemmas included a boy who wanted to go to camp and his father agreed if he payed for it. He saved the money working on a paper round but a week before camp his father demanded that he gave him the money so he could go on a trip with his friends

Based on this, Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral development
He found that in general, the older the person, the higher the stage
The higher the stage, the more equilibrated the form of moral understanding (more logically consistent and morally mature the thinking is)

Question 30

The Stages of Moral Reasoning

Answer 30

Pre-conventional
Stage 1: punishment orientation - rules are obeyed to avoid punishment
Stage 2: instrumental orientation or personal gain - rules are followed for personal gain
Conventional
Stage 3 - “good boy’ or ‘good girl’ orientation - rules are obeyed for approval
Stage 4 - maintenance of social order - rules are obeyed to maintain social order
Post-conventional
Stage 5 - morality of contract and individual rights - rules are challenged if they infringe of others
Stage 6 - morality of conscience - individuals have a personal set of ethical principles

Question 31

Levels of moral reasoning: links to criminality

Answer 31

Kohlberg et al (1973) used his moral dilemmas to compare a group of violent youths with a group of non-violent youths and found that the group of violent youths were at a significantly lower levels of moral development, even after controlling for variables such as social background
They,and other offenders, were more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s model (stages 1 and 2)
Whereas non-offenders have generally progressed to the conventional level and beyond
Offenders are stuck in stages 1 and 2 meaning they don’t respect the authority (the police), may commit crime for personal gain and therefore don’t surpass age 2, don’t care about the punishment (haven’t even developed stage 2) and don’t care about the social order or respecting others (lack of following police)
However, you could argue that they aren’t at any stage as they don’t obey any sort of rules and therefore can’t be in any

Question 32

Level of moral reasoning strengths

Answer 32

One strength is that there is evidence for the link between the level of moral reasoning and crime
For example, Palmer & Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the “social moral reflection measure short form (SRM-SF)” which contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions such as not asking things that belong to others and keeping a promise to a friend. The offender group shows less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group
This is a strength because it is a very similar study to Kohlberg’s original one yet done with offenders themselves. This isn supporting his theory and theory and therefore gives it external validity. The study also takes place with a lot more participants and is a lot more recent than Kohlberg’s original study

Additional supporting research evidence for the link between the level of moral reasoning and crime:
- Gisli & Sigurdsson (2007) used their “Offending Motivation Questionnaire” to assess 129 male juvenile offenders. They found that 38% didn’t considered the consequences of what they were doing and 36% were confident they wouldn’t be caught. This suggests that the juvenile offenders were at Kohlberg’s pre-conventional level or moral reasoning
- Chen & Howitt (2007) used a test based on Kohlberg’s stages to assess 330 male adolescent offenders aged 12-18 in Taiwan. Those offenders who shows more advanced reasoning were less likely to be involved in violent crimes (this also adds cultural variation and therefore ecological validity)

Question 33

Level of moral reasoning limiations

Answer 33

One limitation is that this explanation fails to consider the type of offence
For example, Thornton & Reid (1982) found that people who committed crimes for financial gain (e.g. robbery) were more likely to shoe pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes (e.g. assault). Pre-conventional morale reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment. As suggested by Langdon (2010), intelligence may be a more important factor in determining the likelihood of an individual committing a crime and is a more quantifiable and objective characteristic compared to levels of moral reasoning
This is a limitation because it suggests that Kohlberg left out certain important areas such as different types of crimes and their effects and the impact of IQ suggesting that his theory is limited and therefore not a complete explanation

A further limitation is that while Kohlberg’s theory is useful in that it provides insights into the mechanics of the criminal mind, we need to remember that moral thinking is not the same as moral Behaviour
For example, critics of Kohlberg’s research have suggested that the moral dilemma technique may be a poor predication of real-life behaviour. The Heinz dilemma is hypothecated and may not reflect the moral decisions that someone would exercise in real life. This means that the technique is low in external validity. Moral reasoning of the kind Kohlberg was interest in is more likely to be used to justify behaviour after it has happened than before (Krebs and Denton 1995)
This is a limitations because it suggests that Kohlberg’s theory, based off his study, might be incorrect. Just because someone said one thing while in an interview doesn’t mean that when they were put in a stressful situation that they wouldn’t actually do it. Your morals aren’t fully known until you are put to the yeast (which would be an unethical study to carry out)

Question 34

Levels of moral reasoning discussion point

Answer 34

The idea that most criminals are likely at the pre-conventional level fits in with the idea of an ‘age of criminal responsibility’
In England and Wales, children under 10 cannot be charged with a crime because it is believed that they don’t understand the idea of moral responsibility
In Kohlberg’s original study, just under 20% of the children at age 10 were at stage 1 and about 60% of children were at stage 2

Question 35

Cognitive distortions: introduction

Answer 35

Cognitive distortion is a form of irrational thinking
In particular ‘distortions’ are ways that reality becomes twisted so that what is perceived no longer represents what’s actually true
The results is that a person’s perceptions of events is wrong but they think it is accurate
In the context of criminal behaviour, such distortions allow an offender to deny or rationalise their behaviour
Two especially relevant examples of cognitive distortions are hostile attribution bias and minimisation

Question 36

Cognitive distortions: hostile attribution bias

Answer 36

‘Attribution’ refers to what we think when we observe someone’s actions and drawn an inference about what it means
For example, if someone smiles, you might infer that they are communicating that they like you
A hostile attribution bias is when someone has a leaning towards always thinking the worst
They may misread non-aggressive cues, such as being ‘looked at’ and this may trigger a disproportionate, often violent, response
Schonenberg & Jusyte (2014) illustrated this by presenting 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expression
Compared to a non-aggressive matched control group, he violent offenders where significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile
It has been argued that the roots of this behaviour can be seen in childhood
Dodge & Frame (1982) showed children a video clip of an ‘ambiguous provocation’ (neutral situation that does end up provoking them)
Children who had previously been identified as aggressive prior to the study interpreted thus situation has more hostile than those classed as non-aggressive

Question 37

Cognitive distortions: Minimalisation

Answer 37

When you downplay the severity of a situation and use it to justify their actions
They may also try and downplay the impact it will have on the victim
For example a burglar may downplay their actions of stealing from a wealthy family by saying that they won’t noice what they have stolen and that having a few things taken from them won’t impact them as they can easily afford to replace things
(Robin Hood type mentality)
Studies have suggested that sexual offenders are particularly prone to minimalisation
For example, Barbaree (1991) found that among 26 jailed rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 50% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim

Question 38

Cognitive distortions evaluation

Answer 38

One strength is that cognitive distortion explanations have useful applications
For example, they have been successfully applied to modifying criminal behaviour. CBT aims to challenged irrational thinking. This could be done by teaching them how to responds to events and using cognitive restructuring (what do you believe, why do you believe this, why is this untrue and irrational, how can be look at this differently)
This is a strength because cognitive explanations such as cognitive distortions have proved valuable in helping to reduce aggression and reoffending

One limit on is that the level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence
For example, Howitt & Sheldon (2007) gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders and found that non-contact sex offenders (internet’s media) used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders. Those who had a previous history of offending were also more likely to use distortions as justifications
This is a limitation because it suggests hat distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders

A further limitations is that most people are prone to cognitive distortions
For example, Maruna & Mann suggested that cognitive distortions such as minimalisation are used by everyone. It is natural to blame events on external sources and minimise our involvement in negative situations.
Therefore, cognitive distortions aren’t particularly deviant and if most people use them, they can’t be used to explain why some people commit crimes and others don’t - which brings the validity of this theory into question

Question 39

Differential association theory: the basics

Answer 39

Sutherland 1924
This suggests that we learn our values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour from our associations (interactions) with other people
So if more favourable attitudes about crime are learned then we see criminal behaviour as acceptable
We might even learn methods of how we commit crimes from those around us
This can explain differences in criminal behaviour - those who associate with people who have negative attitudes towards crime will likely have different attitudes towards crime than those who associate with people who have more positive attitudes towards it

Question 40

DAT: scientific basis

Answer 40

Wanting a scientific basis is progressive for the time
Sutherland wanted to develop a set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending
“The conditions which are said to case crime should be present when crime is present and they should be absent when crime is absent”
(If you live in a decant environment, you will be more likely to offend)
- allows us to predict offenders
He wanted a theory that could discriminate between people who come offenders and those who don’t, regardless of their class or ethnic background
Sutherland also created the term white collar crime in 1939 (e.g. fraud) - if you’re working in an office with wcc, you will be more likely to do it too

Question 41

DAT: offending as a learned behaviour

Answer 41

(Note that this was theorised in 1924 and the 1910-1950s saw a dominance of the behaviourists approach)
Sutherland argued that offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour through the processes of learning (both conditioning and social learning theory)
This learning occurs most often through interactions with people who an individual values most and spends the most time with (e.g. family and peer group)
It is therefore possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit offences
We just need to know the frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values

Question 42

DAT: learning attitudes

Answer 42

We will go on to offend if we acquire more pro-crime attitudes than anti-crime attitudes of groups we are socialised into

Question 43

DAT: learning techniques

Answer 43

In addition to being exposed to pro-crime attitudes, would-be offenders may also learn particular techniques for committing offences

Question 44

DAT: socialisation in prison

Answer 44

As well as offering an account of how offending may ‘breed’ amongst specific social groups and in communities, Sutherland’s theory can also account for why so many convicts from prison go on to reoffend
- in prison they may have been further exposed to pro crime attitudes which has reinforced their own
- they may learn new crimes and behaviours for committing them

Question 45

DAT Evaluation

Answer 45

One strength of DAT is that is used scientific methods
Sutherland aimed to scientifically measure offending behaviour, which requires operationalising concepts such as intensity of exposure to deviant behaviour and the depth of pro-crime attitudes
This is a strength because it allows for objective and scientific basis of his theory
However, this could also be considered reductionist
It can be very hard to operationalise behaviour or define what pro-crime attitudes are and in the process of trying to do so, they might become overly simplistic. Humans are very complex and their behaviours and thought processes can’t be separated into a few different categories. The process of also predicting behaviour is not as easy as Sutherland made it out to be

One strength of DAT is that there are practical applications of it, both in the community and in prisons
For example,e if we are able to predict possible offenders we can provide targeted intervention to ensure these people don’t go on to become offenders. These interventions could include therapies, support groups and in prisons specifically, recreational activities that would ensure people have other things to bond with fellow prisoners other than just their crimes and therefore May talk less about the crimes they committed. People in prisons could also be grouped in accordance to the crimes they committed, so that they have less interaction with those who committed very different crimes to what they did and therefore lower chance of learning new behaviours
This is a strength because it shows that DAT can help people who are at risk or have already offended and decrease crime and reoffending rates
However, it could still be very hard to make people complete these interventions
For example, people who are at risk for committing crimes but haven’t yet may be reluctant to participate in any sort of therapies or support groups because they haven’t done anything wrong. And in prisons, it is still going to be very hard to reduce pro-crime attitudes as they have already committed crimes so they are already highly embedded

One limitation of DAT is that there is contradicting reserach
For example, Newbury (2002) reported that 40% of offences are committed by people under 21, who were predominantly male
This is a limitation because Sutherland’s study suggested that offending behaviour should be seen equally in all ages and all genders
****

Question 46

Inadequate superego introduction

Answer 46

Ronald Blackburn (1993) revues that if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable
- deterministic theory

Question 47

Three types of inadequate superego: the weak super ego

Answer 47

(Doesn’t develop as it should)
There is an absence of the same-gender parent in the phallic stage
This means that the child can’t identity with same same-gender parent
This means that the Superego isn’t fully formed and the child has a lack of understanding of the difference between right and wrong
The superego doesn’t punish the child through the feelings of guilt
This means that the child will show criminal or immoral behaviour as the superego doesn’t hold them back

Question 48

The three types of inadequate superego: the deviant superego

Answer 48

When the child identifies wit their same-gender parents
The parent they identify with is immoral (criminal themselves) so has immoral standards or behaviour
This leads the child to internalise morals that are not acceptable
This means that they don’t see criminal behaviour in the same way as others and won’t associate guilt withy showing criminal behaviour

Question 49

The three types of inadequate superego: the over-harsh superego

Answer 49

A healthy superego is firm and has rules of what behaviours are and aren’t acceptable
If these rules are broken, the superego will be forgiving
This is different from the over-harsh superego, which won’t be forgiving
This increases guilt for wrongdoing and will lead thr child to seek opportunities where they will be reprimanded to reduced their sense of guilt
This leads to criminal behaviour to satisfy the superego’s need for punishment

Question 50

Psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour evaluation

Answer 50

Strength - research support for link between offending behaviour and the superego
Goreta (1991) conducted a Freudian-style analysis of ten thousand offenders referred for psychiatric treatment. In all those assessed, disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed. Each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self-punishment. Great explained this as a consequence of an over-harsh superego, the need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing and offend
This evidence seems to support the role of psychic h conflicts and a over-harsh superego as a basis for offending behaviour

Limitation - There is evidence contradicting the findings of Bowlby’s 44 juvenile thieves study
Lewis (1959) found that maternal deprivation during childhood was not indicative or a reliable predictor of the likelihood of becoming a criminal in the future
Therefore, this decreases the validity of the theory that maternal deprivation is the only reason for later offending behaviour (although it may still be a reason)

Limitation - suffers from gender bias, according the Hoffman (1975)
In line with Freud’s psychodynamic approach, girls should be at a greater risk of becoming criminal because they suffer Ron penis envy instead of castration anxiety. However, statistical evidence doesn’t support this idea
Instead, girls within the phallic stage actually display a greater appreciation of the value of delayed gratification compared to boys, showing ow external validity

Limitation - lack of scientific rigour
The superego/an individual’s internalised sense of right and wrong is embedded within the unconscious tripartite personality, meaning that such a concept cannot be empirically and objectively measured. Therefore, since the superego is a concept which can’t be proven wrong,thus suggests that, according to Popper’s criterion of falsification, that it is unfalsifiable and therefore pseudoscientific
This does little to increase the scientific credibility of psychology

Question 51

Offender profiling

Answer 51

Definition:
A behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offenders
Description:
Offender profiling is a tool often used when solving crimes, most typically serious crimes including rape and murder
Professional profilers are called upon to work alongside the police with the aim of narrowing down the list of suspects in a crime
It works on the assumption that characteristics of an offender can be deduced from careful scrutiny of crime scene and evidence (including written reports) and this can give a hypothesis about an offender, including details such as age, background and occupation

Question 52

The top-down approach

Answer 52

(Work down from crime scene to categorise an offender)
Top-down approach to profiling originated in US as a result of work carried out by FBI in 70s
More specifically, FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit drew upon data gathered from in-depth (but not standardised) interviews with 36 sexually motivated killers including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson
25 of these were serial killers and other 11 were single or double murders

Limitations from description:
Used interviews:
- self-report evidence, so we can question validity
- small sample size of 36
- non random sample, all been caught and willing to ppt
- all American
- only sexually motivated killers
- non-standardised so can’t replicate

Question 53

How it works

Answer 53

FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit concluded from data that offenders could be classified in one of two categories
(- organised
- disorganised)
On the basis of the offender’s signature way of working, or their modus operandi
These should be seen across all of their crime scenes, linking them together
Furthermore, there are particular sets of social and psychological characteristics that relate to each type of offender, which then helps generate the profile of the criminal

Question 54

Organised

Answer 54

Crime scene detail: evidence of planning
Weapon absent
Body transported from the original point of murder
Body hidden from view
Attempts to clear up to remove clues and evidence

Victim: victim targeted
Has a type

Characteristics of criminal: high IQ
Socially competent (e.g. able to make small talk, develop relationships of crime)
Sexually competent
Skilled occupation
Monitors media coverage of crimes

Background of criminal: married, possibly with children
High birth order (e.g. eldest children in family)

Question 55

Disorganised

Answer 55

Crime scene detail: little evidence of planning, crime is spontaneous, our of the moment
Crime scene reflects impulsivity
Weapon present
Sexual activity after death
Body left in view

Victim: selected at random

Characteristics of criminal: average IQ
Socially immature
Sexually incompetent
Poor work history
No interest in media coverage

Background of criminal: low brith order (e.g. youngest)
Lives alone
Lives/works close to crime scene

Question 56

Main stages of top-down approach

Answer 56

1. Data assimilation
   - profiler reviews the evidence (photo, pathology and witness reports)
2. Crime scene classification
   - profiler decides whether on balance the crime is organised or disorganised
3. Crime reconstruction
   - profiler generates a hypothesis in terms of sequence of events, behaviour or victim and suspect
4. Profile generation
   - profiler uses all of this information to generate a hypothesis relating to the likely offender

Question 57

Issues of top-down approach

Answer 57

Reductionists as the classification system is too simple
Offenders aren’t simply either disorganised or organised
It is likely that there will be both organised and disorganised features to their crimes
- makes it subjective as they have to make a balance between the two of them (are they more organised or less disorganised)
Therefore, due to this oversimplification of the classification system, it may be more useful to study the motives that each criminal has
In this way, seemingly contradictory crimes can still be explained
- e.g. a power-reassurance rapist who lacks the self-confidence and interpersonal skills to develop relationships with women
- he lives or works near his victim (disorganised feature) and “preselects” her by peeping or stalking her before breaking in (organised feature)

Question 58

Top-down approach strength

Answer 58

Some supporting evidence
Canter et al (2004) used the statistical technique of smallest space analysis to analyse the data from 100 murders in the US, each committed by a different serial killer. This involved analysing the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings, e.g. use of torture, restraint, weapon used, concealment of body etc. the analysis revealed that there is support for the existence of an organised offender type, but not disorganised type
Shows supports for some aspects of the the theory
However, the research evidence doesn’t support existence of the disorganised category which is a key component of the top down approach, which could lead to potential issues when trying to profile someone

Question 59

Top down approach limitations

Answer 59

Contradictory research, that suggests it might actually be a hinderance in cases
Copson (1995) conducted a study of offender profiling using a police research group. The questionnaires given to the police gave the following results:
- 80% said they thought profiling was useful
- 14% said they thought it assisted in solving cases
- 3% of the time hey were able to identity the offender
Mismatch between the perceived usefulness of offender profiling and the actual usefulness, showing it isn’t actually that useful. However, if the police think it is useful, they may focus on the profile and lead them away from the actual offender and towards and innocent person

It is of limited use
It only applied to a limited number of crimes, such as sexually-motivated killers, due to the sample of criminals which it was formed from
Hard to generalise, as most crimes aren’t sexually-motivated murders, so it may have limited application when profiling offenders
However, more recent top-down profiling has been successfully applied to burglary
Two new categories have been added to organised and disorganised. The two that have been added are interpersonal (offender usually knows their victim and steals something of significance) and opportunistic (generally inexperienced young offenders)
This has led to am 85% rise in solved cased in three US states, suggesting that top-down profiling has wider application than has been previously assumed

Question 60

The bottom-up approach

Answer 60

The British approach to offender profiling
Data driving approach (scientific and objective) that makes use of statistical data on similar crimes that have been committed, in order to make predictions about the characteristics of an offender
Aim of the bottom-up approach is to generate a picture of the offender
- their likely characteristics, routine behaviour and social background
Done through systematic analysis of evidence at crime scene
Important to note that according to this approach, people are seen as being consistent in their behaviour

Unlike top-down approach, bottom-up approach model doesn’t begin with fixed typologies of organised vs disorganised offenders
Instead, profile is ‘data-driven’ and emerges as the investigator engages in deeper more rigorous scrutiny of the details of the office
Bottom-up profiling is also much more grounded in psychological theory than top-down approach

The two hallmarks of the bottom-up approach are investigating psychology and geographical profiling

Question 61

Investigative psychology

Answer 61

Attempts to apply statistical procedures and psychological theory to the analysis of crime scenes in order to establish patterns of behaviour that occur across crime scenes
Each crime and (when known) details of the offender are recorded onto a statistical database
1) to match unsolved crimes that are linked to the same offender
2) once crime is solved, details of the offender is added, so other new offenders who are likely to be similar to caught offender can be found
Then, details of the new crimes are matched it’s this database in order to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, social demographic and motivations of the offender
Therefore, there is a much greater emphasis on scientific methods of investigation and statistical analysis, compared to the top-down approach

Central to the approach is interpersonal coherence
- that the way in which the offender behaves at the scene, including how they ‘interact’ with the victim, may reflect their behaviour in more everyday situations
- e.g. while some rapists want to maintain max control (history of domestic violence) and humiliate their victims, others are more apologetic (poor and unsuccessful relationship history) (Dwyer, 2001)
- this might tell police something about how the offender relates to women more generally

The significance of time (work life, shifts, family) and place is a key variable
- it may indicate where the offender lives

Forensic awareness described those individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before, so their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of ‘covering their tracks’
- i.e. may be repeat offenders
- e.g. rapists who cleaned up fingerprints likely have a history of burglary

Question 62

Investigative psychology strength

Answer 62

Supporting evidnce
Canter and Heritage (2001) conducted analysis of 66 solved sexual assault cases. The data was analysed using smallest space analysis to analyse to co-occurrence of certain aspects of crimes, such as the use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. It was found that each offender displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours across crimes, making it easier to establish case linkage (i.e. whether two or more crimes were committed by the same person)
Supports basic principle of investigative psychology (and bottom-up approach as a while) that people are consistent in their behaviour)

Question 63

Geographical profiling

Answer 63

Uses information about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of the offender
It is based on idea of spatial consistency, which suggests that serial offenders will restrict their work to geographical areas that they are familiar with

Understanding the spatial pattern of behaviour allows investigators to determine a centre of gravity which is likely to include the offender’s base (often in the middle of the spatial pattern)
This is the basis of Canter’s circle theory (triangle theory in America)
- the pattern of offending behaviour forms a circle around their usually residence and this becomes more apparent with the more offences there are
- works best with 5 or more crimes

According to Canter and Larkin (1993), offenders can be classified as marauders (carrying out crimes close to their home base) or commuters (carrying out crimes far away from their home base)

This could be useful because:
- can offer the investigative team important insight into nature of offence, i.e planned or opportunistic, offender’s ‘mental maps’, moe of transport, employment status, approx age, etc
- also may help investigators make educated guesses about whether the offender is likely to strike nearby, known as the jeopardy surface
- can allow for the search area to be narrowed
- of the offences involve murder or violent crimes, police presence can be increased to keep people safe

Question 64

Geographical profiling strength

Answer 64

Supporting evidence to support geographical profiling, as a way of narrowing the field of ensuring and identifying offenders as either marauders or commuters
Following the smallest space analysis of 120 serial murder cases, Lundrigan and Canter (2001) were able to identity characteristic traits of spatial consistency, such as the presence of a jeopardy surface (which could be used to predict the locations of future crimes) as well as the centre of gravity (which was often the offender’s operational base)
Supports view that geographical information can be used to identity an offender

Question 65

Geographical profiling limitation

Answer 65

May not be sufficient on its own
Other factors, such as the timing of the offence are just as important as the geographical information in creating a profile. In addition, the recording of crime isn’t always accurate. This due to a number of reasons, such as:
- the dark figure of crime - a large number of offences aren’t reported (fear, shame, etc)
- even if you do report it, the police don’t then have to necessarily record it (might not fit into their areas of priority or don’t believe the person reporting an offence)
- may mean the geographical mapping might be limited if you don’t have all of the spots
This then calls into question of the usefulness of an approach that relies on the accuracy of geographical data
Suggests that geographical information alone may not always lead to the successful capture of an offender

Question 66

Overall effectiveness of the bottom up approach

Answer 66

Almost certainly a useful method of offender profiling, but it doesn’t always lead to the correct identification of the offender
For example, Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police departments and found that the advice provided by the profiler was judges as ‘useufl’ in 83% of cases, which suggests it is a valid investigative tool
However, it led to successful identification of the offender in only 3% of cases
- for example, the case of Rachel Nickell
This suggests that offender profiling may actually have little practical value when it comes to solving cases
It may focus police investigations and offer new lines of enquiry, but it terms of what it is designed to do (lead to identification of the offender) it may fall somewhat short

Question 67

Dealing with offending behaviour

Answer 67

Custodial sentencing
Behaviour modification in custody
Anger management
Restorative justice programmes

Question 68

Aims of custodial sentencing

Answer 68

Involved a convicted offender spending time in prison or another closed institution (young offender’s institute, psychiatric hospital, rehabilitation centre, such as for drug addiction related offences)
4 main reasons for doing this:
1. Deterrence
- unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual (or society at large) from engaging in offending behaviour
- works on two levels
- General deterrence aims to send a broad message to members of a given society that crime will not be tolerated
- individual deterrence should prevent the individual from repeating the same offences in light of their experience
- based on the behaviourist idea of conditioning through vicarious punishment
2. Incapacitation
- offender is taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending as a means of protecting the public
- need for incapacitation is likely to depend upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender
- e.g. individuals in society will require more protection from a serial murderer or rapist than an elderly person who refuses to pay council tax
3. Retribution
- society is enacting revenge for the offence by making the offender suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence
- this is based on the biblical notion for an ‘eye for an eye’, that the offender should in some way pay for their action
- many people see prison as best possible action in this sense and alternative to prison often criticised as soft options
4. Rehabilitation
- many people would see main objective as prison not purely to punish, but to form
Upon release, offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society
- prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes (e.g. for drug addiction or anger), as well as give offender chance to reflect on their offence

Question 69

Psychological effect of custodial sentencing

Answer 69

There are several psychological effects associated with serving time in prison:
Stress and depression - suicide rates are considerably higher in prisons than in general public
- same for incidents of self-mutilation and self-harm
- the stress of the prison experience also increases the risk of developing psychological disorders following release
Institutionalisation - having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, inmates may become so accustomed to these that they are no longer able to function on the outside
Prisonisation - refers to way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an ‘inmate code’
- behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged inside institutions

Question 70

The problem of recidivism

Answer 70

Refers to reoffending
Recidivism rates in ex-prisoners tell us to what extent prison acts an as effective deterrent
It is difficult to obtain clear figures for recidivism rates for various reasons, for example it depends whether you are looking at reoffending within a year of release or a longer period
Typically in the UK the Ministry of Justice reports proven figures within one year of release (‘proven’ means person has been caught)
In recent years the UK figure has been about 45% (e.g. Yukhnenko et al. 2019, based on the Ministry of Justice figures)
Reoffending rates vary with time period after release, age of offender, crime committed and country
The US, Australia and Denmark regularly record rates in excess of 60%
In Norway, rates may be as low as 20% (Yukhnenko et al.)
- this is significant because in Norway there is less emphasis on incarceration and greater emphasis on rehabilitation and skills development than elsewhere

Question 71

Custodial sentencing strengths

Answer 71

Provides opportunity for training and treatment
One objective of imprisonment is rehabilitation. Offenders may become better people during their time in prison and their improved character means they may be able to lead a crime-free life when back in society. Many offenders access eduction and training whilst in prison, increasing the possibility they will find in employment upon release. The Vera Institute of Justice (Shirley 2019) claims that offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend following release, and that prisons who offer these programmes report fewer incidents of violence
Suggests prisons may be worthwhile experience assuming offenders are able to access these programmes

Question 72

Custodial sentences limitations

Answer 72

Negative psychological effect on prisoners
Curt Barton (1995) has suggested that, for many offenders, imprisonment can be ‘brutal, demeaning and generally devastating’. According to the Ministry of Justice, a record of 119 people killed the slaves in prisons in England and Wales in 2016 - an increase of 29 (32%) on the previous year (The Guardian 2017). This equates to an average suicide rate of one every three day, almost 9 times higher than in the general population. Most at risk are young, single men during the first 24 hours of confinement. A study conducted by the Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis (e.g. sz)
Supports view that oppressive prison regimes may be detrimental to psychological health which could impact on rehabilitation
However the figures in the Prison reform trust study above don’t include the number of inmates who were experiencing psychotic symptoms before they were incarcerated
Many of those convicted may gave pre-exiting psychological and emotion difficulties at the time they were convicted (and this may explain their offending in the first place). The importation model argues that prisoners may import some of their psychological problems so we don’t know if this is a problem with the prison regime, or something else, such as the trauma of being locked away, regardless of what prison life it like
Suggests there may be confounding variables that influence the link between person and its psychological effects

Offenders may learn to become better offenders
Alongside the legitimate skills that offenders may acquire during their time in prison, they may also undergo a more dubious ‘eduction’ as part of their sentence. Incarceration with long-term offenders may give younger inmates in a particular the opportunity to learn ‘tricks of the trade’ from more experienced prisoners. Offenders may also acquire criminal contacts whilst in prison that they may follow up when they are released
This form of ‘education’ may undermine attempts to rehabilitate prisoners and consequently may make reoffending more likely

Question 73

Extra evaluation

Answer 73

A recent survey (Onepoll 2015) found that nearly half of the respondents (47%) saw the primary purpose of prison as being to punish the offender for their wrongdoing. May saw current prison regimes as ‘too soft’, akin to a ‘holiday camp’ that wouldn’t deter existing or would-be offenders
However, a similar number of respondents (40%) held the view that prison’s main emphasis should be on reform and rehabilitation, that prison should provide access to training and treatment so that offenders can be effectively reintegrated back into society
Overcrowding and lack of funding were seen as barriers to these

Question 74

Behaviour modification in custody - behaviourist principle

Answer 74

According to the behaviourist approach, all human behaviour is learned
In which case, it should be possible to encourage the unlearning of behaviour
Behaviour modification programmes are designed with the Aim of reinforcing obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience, in the hope that the former continues and the later dies out

Question 75

Token economy

Answer 75

Behaviour modification programmes, such as token economies, are based on operant conditioning
Within the walls of a prison, desirable behaviour may include avoiding confrontation, following prison rules, keeping one’s cell orderly, and so on
In a token economy, prions are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour
Each of these behaviours and rewards would be made clear to the prisoners before the programme is implemented
It would also be emphasised that non-compliance, or disobedience, may result in the the tokens (and the associated privileges) being withheld or removed (as a form of punishment)
Tokens are not rewarding in themselves, but derive their value from their association with a reward and thus are called secondary reinforcers
In a prison, the tokens might be exchanged for a phone call to a loved one, time in the gym or exercise heard, extra cigarettes or food (all primary reinforced i.e. they are directly rewarding)

Question 76

Designing and using a token economy

Answer 76

Operationalise target behaviours:
- in a token economy, a target behaviour is operationalised by breaking it down into component parts
- for instance, the target behaviour may be improved interaction with other inmates
- this may be broken down into not touching another prisoner as you pass them, speaking politely to each other, etc
- the ‘units’ of behaviour should be objective and measurable and agreed with prison staff and inmates in advance
Scoring system:
- staff and prisoners should also be made aware of the scoring system and how much each particular behaviour is ‘worth’
- behaviours are hierarchical in the sense that some are regarded as more demanding than others so reveille greater rewards
- for example, when it comes to improving interactions with other inmates, we might award more tokens to ‘working co-operatively on a group task’ than ‘not swearing’
- some token economy systems may award tokens directly whereas other may award points which are then converted to tokens
- in either case, the recommendation is that reinforcement should outnumber punishments by a ratio of 4:1 (Gendreau et al. 2011)
Train staff:
- it is important that prison staff are given full training in order to implement the token economy system successfully
- training may involve several hours for a number of weeks
- the aim is to standardise the procedures so that all the prion staff are rewarding the same behaviours in the same way
- staff must also record when they have awarded tokens, so the progress of individual prisoners and be assessed

Question 77

Longer-term effects

Answer 77

Although it seems to be the case that behaviour modification may produce short-term effects (an increase in compliant behaviour within institutions), in long-term effectiveness is less certain
Harold Cohen and James Filipczak (1971), demonstrated how a token economy group showed more desirable behaviour than a control group within an adult prison
Even though the researchers noted that those offenders who took part in the programme were less likely to reoffend to years later, after three years, rates of recidivism went back to reflecting national statistics
This suggests that whilst behaviour modification may delay recidivism, it has little overall impact in the longer term

Question 78

Behaviour modification strengths

Answer 78

Supporting evidence
Torn Hobbs and Michael Holt (1976) introduces a token economy programme with groups of young offenders across 3 behavioural units (and a fourth unit acted as a ‘control’). Observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group. Further, Clinton Field et al. (2004) found a token economy programmes used with young people with behavioural problems was generally effective, although there were still a number of young people who didn’t respond. Later, these youths were place on a special programmes where the retreads were more immediate and more frequent and the results were more positive
Suggests token economy systems do work
However, the success of such systems does depend on a consistent approach from prison staff. John Bassett and Edward Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost if staff applied the techniques inconsistently. According to the researchers, this was due to factors such as lack of appropriate staff training or high staff turnover (the latter, particularly, is a feature of many UK prisons)
Suggests that behaviour modification schemes must ensure full and consistent staff ppt if they bare to work

Relatively straightforward to set up in custody
Appeal of behaviour modification (e.g. token economies) rests largely upon the ease with which it can be administered. There is no need to a specialist professional to be involved as there would be for other forms of treatment such a anger management. Rather, token economy systems can be designed and implement by virtually anyone in any institution. They are also cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established
Suggests behaviour modification techniques can be established in most prisons and accessed by most prisoners

Question 79

Behaviour modification limitations

Answer 79

May not affect long-term behvaiour
In words of Ronald Blackburn (1993), behaviour modification has ‘little rehabilitative value’ and any positive changes in behaviour that may occur whilst an offender is in prison may quickly be lost when they are released. More cognitive-based treatments, such as anger management, may be more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change. Such treatments require the offender to understand the cause of their offending and take responsibility for their own rehabilitation. In contrast, offenders can fairly easily play along with a token economy system in order to access the rewards, but this produces little change in their overall character
This may explain why, once the token economy system is discontinued, an offence may quickly regress back to their former behaviour

Behaviour modification programmes have ben associated with decreased conflict within penal institutions and more successful management of the prison population. This can reduce pressure and stress on prison staff in hat can be a hostile and difficult environment
However, critics have described behaviour modification as manipulative and dehumanising (Moya and Achtenberg 1974). Participation in the scheme is obligatory rather than optional, and human rights campaigners argue that withdrawal of ‘privileges’, such as exercise and contact with loved ones (in form of withdrawal of tokens), is unethical

Question 80

Anger management - cognitive behaviour therapy

Answer 80

Raymond Novato (1975) suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts
His argument is that, in some people, anger is often quick to surface especially in situations that are perceived to be anxiety-including or threatening
In behaviourist terms, becoming angry is reinforced by the individual’s feelings of control in that situation
As such, anger management programmes are a form of CBT
The individual is taught how to recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger and loss of control and then encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict resolution without the need for violence

Question 81

Three stages

Answer 81

1. Cognitive preparation
   - this stage requires and offender to reflect on past experiences and consider the typical pattern of their anger
   - the offender learns to identify those situations which act as triggers to anger and, if the way in which the offender interprets the event in irrational, the therapist’s role is to make this clear
   - for instance, the offender may view someone looking at them or their partners as an act of confrontation
   - in redefining the situation as non-threatening, the therapist is attempting to break what may well be an automatic responses for the offender
2. Skills acquisition
   - in this stage, offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively
   - techniques may include:
   ~ cognitive - positive self-talk to encourage calmness, for example, we are all familiar with the idea of counting to 10 to temper our reaction to a stressful event
   ~ behavioural - assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively which will become an automatic response if practised regularly
   ~ physiological - deal with the physical reaction to anger using relaxation training or meditation
   - the aim is to control one’s emotions rather than being controlled by them
3. Application practise
   - in final phase, offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills within a carefully controlled environment
   - such role play is likely to involve the offender and the therapist re-enacting scenarios, that may have escalated feelings of anger and acts of violence in the past
   - this requires a certain amount of commitment from the offender
   - they must see each scenario as real
   - it also requires a certain amount of bravery from the therapist whose job it is to ‘wind up’ the offender in order to assess their progress
   - if the offender deals successfully with the role play this is given positive reinforcement by the therapist

Question 82

Positive outcome with young offenders

Answer 82

Julia Keen at al. (2000) has studied the progress made with young offenders aged between 17 and 21 who took part in a nationally recognised anger management programme
First devised in 1992 and updates in 1995, the National Anger Management Package was developed by the England and Wales Prison Service
The course comprised eight 2 hour sessions, the first over a seven week period and the last a month afterwards, and the content broadly follows what is described about
Although there were initial issues in terms of offenders not taking the course seriously, and individuals forgetting routines such as the requirement to bring their diary, the outcomes were generally positive
Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control

Question 83

Evidenced that it works

Answer 83

Jane Ireland (2004) compared the progress of 2 groups of offenders
- one who took part in anger management programme (adapted from the National Anger Management Package)
- the other used a non-treatment control
After the treatment group had completed 12 sessions, outcomes were assessed using three measures
- an interview
- a behaviour checklist completed by prisons officers
- self-report questionnaire
The research found found 92% of the experimental group showed an improvement on at least one measure, 48% showed improvement on the checklist and the self-report
There were no such improvements within the control group

Question 84

Anger management strengths

Answer 84

Benefits may outlast those of behaviour modification
Unlike behaviour modification, anger management tries to tackle cognitive processes that trigger anger and cause offending behaviour. Alternative treat,ents such as behaviour modification deal with only surface behaviour and not the processes that drive such behaviour. Experience of anger management may give offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality and allow them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of the prison setting
However, follow-up studies if anger management tend not to support this assumption
The general trend is summarised by Ronald Blackburn (1993) who points out that, whilst anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short-term, there is very little evidence that is reduces recidivism in the long term. This may be because the application phase of treatment still relies on role play which might not properly reflect all the possible triggers that are present in a real-world situation. Any progress made in therapy may count for little when compared to, say, a busy city centre pub on a Saturday night
This suggests that, in the end,m anger management may not reduce reoffending

Question 85

Anger management limitations

Answer 85

Success may depend on individual factors
A study by Kevin Howells et al. (2005) conducted an investigation with Australian offenders. The researchers found that ppt in anger management programmes had little overall impact when compared to a control group who received no treatment. However, this was not true for all offenders in the treatment programme. Significant progress was made with those offenders who had showed intense levels of anger before the programme. Also, offenders who were open to change and highly motivated from the outset (so-called ‘treatment readiness’) experienced similar gains
Suggests that anger management may only benefit offenders who fit a certain profile

Can be expensive
Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require they services of highly-trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. For this reason, many prisons may not have the resources to fund such programmes. In addition, the success of anger management is often based on the commitment of those who ppt, and this may be a problem if prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic. Change takes time and this ultimately likely to add to the expense of delivering effective programmes
Suggests that effective anger management programmes are probably not going to work in most prisons

Question 86

Anger management extra evaluation

Answer 86

The anger management approach suggests there is a straightforward casual relationship between anger and offending. Anger is assumed to be an important antecedent to offending in that it produces the emotional state necessary to commit crime
However, this assumption may be false. Wadgy Loza and Amel Loza-Fanous (1999) found no differences in levels of anger between offenders classed as violent and those classed as non-violent
Further, they suggested anger management programmes may be misguided as they provide offenders with a justification for their behaviour

Question 87

Restorative justice programmes

Answer 87

The basic principles of restorative justice aren’t new
The idea of offenders ‘paying back’ their victims in some form is thousands of years old

Question 88

Changing the emphasis

Answer 88

Historically, a person convicted of a criminal offence would have been regarded as having committed a crime against the state
In contrast, restorative justice programmes switch the emphasis from the needs of the state (to enforced the law and punish) to the needs of the individual victim (to feel compensated in some way and come to terms with the crime)
In doing this method of treatment seeks to be a healing process, as John Braithwaite (2004) suggests, ‘crimes hurt, justice should heal’
Restorative justice is less about retribution and more about reparation
This aims to set out above that restorative justice seeks to focus on two things:
1. The victim (or survivor) of the crime and their recovery
2. The offender and their recovery/rehabilitation process

Question 89

Key features of the programme

Answer 89

Restorative justice programmes can be quite diverse and most share key features:
- trained mediator supervises the meeting
- non-courtroom setting where the offenders voluntarily meet with survivor(s)
- can be a face-to-face meeting or conducted remotely via video link
- the survivors is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affect them - this enables the offender to comprehend the consequences of their actions, including the emotional distress that it caused
- it is important that there is active rather than passive involvement of all parties wherever possible
- the focus is on positive outcomes for both surviours and offenders
- in addition, other relevant community members may have a role in the process such as neighbours, friends and family members - they may all wish to explain the effects of the crime

Question 90

Sentencing and restitution

Answer 90

Restorative justice may occur pre-trial (and the offender’s involvement may be considered during sentencing)
It could also function alongside a prison sentence, or as an alternative to prison (especially is the offender is young) or as an incentive to reduce the length of a sentence
In its traditional sense, restitution if often seen as a monetary payment by an offender to the survivor for the harm resulting from the offence
Therefore, an offender may make some financial restitution to the survivor which may reflect on the psychological damage caused or the actual physical damage, in the case of a break-in for instance
Other variations of the scheme may involve the offender repairing damaged protect themselves
However, the idea of restitution, or paying back, can also be in a more emotional sense
The offender can support the healing process by repairing and rebuilding the survivor’s confidence or self-esteem

Question 91

Restorative Justice Council

Answer 91

The Restorative Justice Council (RJC) is an independent body whose role is to establish clear standard for the use of restorative justice (or restorative place as the RJC refers to it) and to support survivors and specialist professionals in the field
The RJC advocated the use of restorative practise beyond dealing with the crime
It can be used in preventing and managing conflict in many areas including schools, children’s services, workplaces, hospitals and communities

Question 92

Restorative justice strengths

Answer 92

Evidence suggests it has provide outcomes
RJC (Shapland et al. 2008) reported the results of a major 7 year research programme. The headline figures are impressive. 85% of survivors reported satisfaction with the process of meeting their offender face-to face and 78% would recommend it to other people experiencing a similar situation. About 60% of survivors felt the process had made them feel better about the incident, enabling them to feel closure and to ‘move on’. Only 2% said it has made them feel worse
Suggests restorative justice achieves some of its aims, helping survivors of crime cope with the aftermaths of the incident
However, not all research is overwhelmingly positive
William Wood and Masahiro Suzuki (2016) argue that restorative processes aren’t as survivor-focused as often reported in satisfaction surveys. Indeed, the researchers say that restorative justice processes can become distorted, such as when survivors of crime are ‘used’ as a way of helping to rehabilitate offenders, rather than being helped themselves
Suggests that the needs of the survivor in restorative justice may be seen as secondary to the need to retaliate offenders

Does seem to lead to a decrease in rates of recidivism
Meta-analysis of 10 studies by Heather Strang et al. (2013) compared offenders who experienced face-to-face restorative justice schemes with those who just experienced custodial sentencing. The restorative justice group was significantly less likely to reoffend. This reduction was larger in offenders convicted of violent crime than crimes against property. Similarly, a review of 24 published studies by Kristin Bain (2012) found lowered recidivism rates with adult offenders, especially when using 1-2-1 contact rather than general community involvement
Suggests it has a positive impact on reoffending, maybe more so for some types of offence than others and some approaches

Question 93

Restorative justice limitations

Answer 93

Offenders may abuse the system
The success of restorative justice programmes may hinge on an offender’s intentions on being honourable. They must be taking part because they genuinely regret the hurt caused and they want to make amends. Whoever, Hubert Van Gijseghem (2003) suggests that offenders may use restorative justice for all kinds of reason. For example, avoiding punishment, playing down their faults, even taking pride in their relationship with the survivor using direct contact
This would explain why not all offenders ultimately benefit from restorative justice and go on to reoffend

Whilst restorative justice is permitted in cases of domestic violence, the National Police Chief’s Council (NPCC) policy doesn’t support its use in this context. Marian Liebman (2016) argues that the main concern is that the power imbalance between abuser and abused put pressure on survivors, who may fear the worst if they don’t go along with their partner or ex-partner’s suggestions during mediation
However, others argue;s that pre-trial mediation in domestic violence cases produces positive results for survivors (Lünnemann and Wolthuis 2015). Robin Sen at al. (2018) suggested that restorative approaches are particularly us useful in causes of intimate partner violence where a couple has chosen to remain together, as they can address the harm caused and plan for the future

Question 94

Restorative justice limitations

Answer 94

Offenders may abuse the system
The success of restorative justice programmes may hinge on an offender’s intentions on being honourable. They must be taking part because they genuinely regret the hurt caused and they want to make amends. Whoever, Hubert Van Gijseghem (2003) suggests that offenders may use restorative justice for all kinds of reason. For example, avoiding punishment, playing down their faults, even taking pride in their relationship with the survivor using direct contact
This would explain why not all offenders ultimately benefit from restorative justice and go on to reoffend

Whilst restorative justice is permitted in cases of domestic violence, the National Police Chief’s Council (NPCC) policy doesn’t support its use in this context. Marian Liebman (2016) argues that the main concern is that the power imbalance between abuser and abused put pressure on survivors, who may fear the worst if they don’t go along with their partner or ex-partner’s suggestions during mediation
However, others argue;s that pre-trial mediation in domestic violence cases produces positive results for survivors (Lünnemann and Wolthuis 2015). Robin Sen at al. (2018) suggested that restorative approaches are particularly us useful in causes of intimate partner violence where a couple has chosen to remain together, as they can address the harm caused and plan for the future