Attachment

Question 1

Attachment Definition

Answer 1

A close emotional relationship between two people, characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity (closeness)

Question 2

Attachment Behaviour

Answer 2

According to Maccoby (1980), in infancy and early childhood attachment is shown primarily by four kinds of behaviour:
- seeking to be near the other person
- showing distress in separation from that person
- showing relief or joy on reunion
- an orientation to the person (e.g. listening to the person’s voice and watching what they do

Question 3

Reciprocity

Answer 3

The word reciprocal means two-way, or something that is mutual
Reciprocity (like non-verbal conversation) is a from of interaction between infant and caregiver involving mutual responsiveness, with both infant and caregiver involving mutual responsiveness, with both infant and parent actively responding to each other’s signals and eliciting a response from the other
For example, a parent might sing to their baby and this in turn elicits a smile from the baby
So, reciprocity as a caregiver-infant interaction is where the interaction between both infant and caregiver flows back and forth
Brezelton et al. (1975) describes this interaction as a ‘dance’
This is because when a couple dance together, they respond to one another’s movements
- just as we see in reciprocity as a caregiver-infant interaction

Question 4

Alert Phase

Answer 4

Babies have active involvement in this interaction
Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ in which they signal (e.g. through making eye contact) that they are ready for a spell of interaction
These alert phases increase in frequency from around three months old (Feldman 2007)
Research has shown that parents typically pick up on and respond to their baby’s alert phases around two-thirds of the time
Parents may fail to pick up on alert phases because:
- they are otherwise engaged
- they may fail to understand the cues for the alert phases, especially with younger babies or as first time parents
- they may misunderstand the cues and may think they want feeding
- the parents may be extremely fatigued, especially with newborns

Question 5

The Still Face Study - Tronick 1975

Answer 5

Babies who were around 12 months old were studied
They get settled and engage and respond with their carer how they normally would
The mother is then to have a still face and not respond for two minutes
The babies started off by trying to gain their parent’s attention by pointing, smiling, waving their hands, etc
They then up it by starting to shout, scream and shriek
They then became extremely distressed
This shows that babies are active agents
- they are deliberately trying to elicit a response from the caregiver
After two minutes, the caregiver can begin interacting with the infant again, and they go back into interaction together

Question 6

Interactional Synchrony

Answer 6

Interactional synchrony is when two people, such as an infant and caregiver, interact and mirror what the other is doing in terms of their facial and body movements (emotions and behaviours)
This starts at a very early age
- Meltzoff and Moore (1977) conducted the first observational study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as two weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures

Question 7

Interactional Synchrony Study

Answer 7

A baby - with a dummy in their mouth to prevent a facial response - saw an adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or hand movements
- such as mouth opening or tongue protrusion
Following the display from the adult model, the dummy was removed and the child’s expressions were filmed
An association was found (by independent observers) between the expression or gesture the adult had displayed and the actions of the baby
The fact that the infants were so young when displaying imitation suggests that this behaviour is not learned but innate
In fact, later research by Meltzoff and Moore (1983) found the same finding in three-day-old infants

Question 8

Strength of Research into Caregiver-Infant Interactions

Answer 8

One strength of research into caregiver-infant interactions is that a lot of the research is filmed and under controlled observations
This is a strength because:
- EVs are controlled for, such as distractions for the baby (e.g. other noises) can be controlled
- key behaviours are less likely to be missed, as it is being filmed
- more than one observer can record data - helps establish inter-observer reliability
- babies don’t know that they are being observed, so won’t change their behaviour in response to observations
- being recorded means that the Cyvill Burt affair cannot be repeated
This is a strength because the data collected in infant-care giver interaction research should have good reliability and validity

Question 9

Caregiver-Infant Interaction Research Limitation - Interpreting Behaviour

Answer 9

One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions is that it is hard to interpret a baby’s behaviour
This is because:
- babies lack co-ordination
- is something done deliberately or is it done by chance?
- they might have been trying to copy a gesture, but it didn’t look similar enough
- we can’t check with the baby by asking
This is a limitation because we cannot be certain that the infants were actually engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviours may have occurred by chance

Question 10

Research into Caregiver-Infant Interactions Limitation - Importance

Answer 10

A limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us it’s development importance
- it tells us that’s babies do it, but not why they do it
For example, Feldman (2012) pointed out that ideas such as reciprocity and interaction synchrony simply give us names from observable behaviours rather than telling us the purpose of these behaviours
- descriptive no explanatory
This is a limitation because it means we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity and interactional synchrony are important for a child’s development

Question 11

Research into Caregiver-Infant Interactions Strength - Importance and Applications

Answer 11

There is research evidence that shows us that reciprocity and interactional synchrony are indeed important for a child’s development
For example, Isabella et al (1989) found that at both 3 and 9 months that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality (more secure) mother-baby attachments
This suggest that caregiver-infant interaction is probably important in the development of a secure attachment (which in turn has implications for attachments later in life)
This then provides us with practical applications of the research into caregiver-infant interactions
- parent skills training
For example, Crotwell et al (2013) found that a 10 minute parent-child interaction therapy improved interactional synchrony in 20 low income mothers and their pre-school children
This is a strength because it shows that research into caregiver interactions can help improve the future of a child

Question 12

The Glasgow Babies (1964) - Method

Answer 12

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) carried out an observational study on 60 infants (31 male and 29 female) from skilled working-class families in Glasgow
The babies were aged between 5-23 weeks at the start of the investigation
The researcher’s visited the babies in their homes, every month for the first 12 months and then once again at 18 month
- this is na longitudinal study
The researchers interviewed the mothers and observed the children in relation to separation anxiety and stranger anxiety in a range of everyday activities

Question 13

The Glasgow Babies (1964) - Key Findings

Answer 13

At around 25-32 weeks of age (6-8 months) 50% of the children showed separation anxiety
Separation anxiety may have been operationalised in categories such as:
- crying
- vocalisations
- moving towards where their mother was
By 40 weeks (10 months), 80% of children had a specific attachment and 30% had started to form multiple attachments
- with was usually to, but not always the primary caregiver (PCG)

Question 14

Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of Attachment - Stage 1

Answer 14

Asocial Stage
Age: Birth-2 months
Features: - very young infants are asocial in that many kinds of stimuli, both objects and people, produce a favourable reaction, such as a smile
- towards the end of this stage, they do display a preference for faces and eyes
Additional: - attention seeking behaviour such as crying or smiling is not directed at anyone in particular, suggesting attachments could be with anyone

Question 15

Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of Attachments - Stage 2

Answer 15

Indiscriminative Attachment
Age: 2 months-6 months
Features: - an infant now shows a preference for human company over non-human company
- they can distinguish between different people, but are comforted indiscriminately (by anyone) and do not show separation or stranger anxiety yet
Additional: - they can get upset when an individual ceases to interact with them
- from 3 months, infants smile at familiar faces

Question 16

Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of Attachment - Stage 3

Answer 16

Specific Attachment
Age: 7 months-12 months
Features: - an infant shows a preference for one care giver, displaying separation and stranger anxiety
- the infant looks to a particular person for security or protection
- the infant shows joy upon reunion and are comforted by their primary caregiver
Additional: - half of the children showed their specific attachment between 6-8 months
- the primary caregiver is not necessarily the individual that the child spends the most time or who feeds them
- it is instead the one who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby’s ‘signals’ with the most skill
- this is the baby’s mother 65% of cases, regardless of whether she is the food provider

Question 17

Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of Attachment - Stage 4

Answer 17

Multiple Attachments
Age: 12 months onwards
Features: - attachment behaviours are now being displayed towards several different people e.g. siblings, grandparents, etc
- these are sometimes referred to as secondary attachments
- the number of multiple attachments which develop depends on the social circle to whom the infant is exposed to
Additional: - Schaffer and Emerson observed that 29% of the children formed secondary attachments within a month of forming a specific attachment
- by the age of one, the majority of babies had developed multiple attachments
- by 18 months, only 13% of children were attached to only one person

Question 18

Strengths of Schaffer and Emerson’s Research (Method)

Answer 18

It is carried out in the baby’s natural environment (no manipulation) - good external validity (ecolised)
Longitudinal in nature
Interviewed and observed - more detail to back it up
Nearly equal number of males and females

Question 19

Schaffer and Emerson’s Research Limitations (Method + Sample)

Answer 19

Method:
- less control over EVs as naturalistic
- how much of a stranger was Schaffer in the end?
- social desirability bias during the interviews with mothers
- unconscious bias within observations in Schaffer
Sample:
- all from the same background + geographical area - lacks population validity
- relatively small sample
- no gender bias - relatively split

Question 20

Schaffer and Emerson’s Research Strength (Practical Applications)

Answer 20

One strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s research is the practical applications in day care
For example, in the UK, lots of babies start attending day care at approx. 8 months (due to maternity leave ending) when they are in the specific attachment stage. They will be very stressed at the mother leaving and not easily comforted by the staff (strangers). So the advice might be to do ‘pre-visits’ tho ensure that they are used to the daycare staff, in the hope they will be less distressed
This is a strength because it means that day care provision can be planned using Schaffer and Emerson’s stages

Question 21

Schaffer and Emerson’s Research Limitation (Validity)

Answer 21

One limitation of Schaffer and Emerson’s research is the validity of the measures used to assess attachment in the asocial stage
In this stage, barbie are 0-2 months old. This means they will massively lack co-ordination due to not being developed yet. This means that any movements and gestures made that may have been used as an indication of attachment may have been accidental and therefore not indicating anything. And then on the other side, as baby might have been trying to make a gesture or movement that would act as evidence of attachment, but they researcher might not have realised that this was what the baby intended, and therefore miss and not record it.
This is a limitation because it could well be that infants are more sociable and more discriminating in the asocial stage than proposed by Schaffer and Emerson

Question 22

Attachment to Father

Answer 22

The most basic question we have to ask here is whether babies actually attach to their fathers, and if so, when?
Evidence certainly seems to suggest that, compared to mothers, fathers are much less likely to become a baby’s first attachment
For example, Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that in only 3% of cases was the father the first sole object of attachment (although in 27% of cases the father was the joint first object of attachment with the mother)
However, as you would expect, most fathers go on to become important attachment figures
In 75% of infants studied an attachment was formed with the father my 18 months
This was determined by the fact that the infant protested when their father walked away (a sing of attachment)

Question 23

Distinct Role for Fathers

Answer 23

A different, and better, question is whether male adult caregivers makes a unique contribution to early development
Grossman (2002) carried out a longitudinal study looking at both the parents’ behaviour and its relationship to the quality of the children’s attachment to other people when they were in their teens
Quality of attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to attachments in adolescence, suggesting that the father attachment was less important
However, Grossman also found that the quality of the fathers’ play was related to the quality of adolescent attachment
This suggests that the fathers have a different role in attachment from attachment
- one more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with emotional support
This is a similar conclusion to Geiger (1996) who argued that while mothers are more often shown to be the main emotional figure in a child’s life, fathers are more playful, physically active and generally better at providing more challenging situations for their children

Question 24

Fathers as Primary Attachment Figures

Answer 24

The primary attachment figure has a special emotional significance and forms the basis of later close emotional relationships
Some research has suggested that men lack emotional sensitivity to infant cues that some women offer spontaneously (Heermann, et al 1994)
This may be due to biological factors
- e.g. the female hormone hormone oestrogen underlines caring behaviour so women, generally, are more oriented towards emotional relationships to men
However, the view that men are ‘not emotional’ is outdated
More recent research by Gettler et al (2011) suggests that the mother is not the only parent who becomes hormonally adapted
- men’s testosterone levels drop, perhaps to help a man respond more sensitively to his child’s needs
There is also evidence that suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being primary caregiver, they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers (i.e. more “emotional”)
Field (1978) filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interaction with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers
Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smilie, imitating and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers
These are all parts of reciprocity and interactional synchrony, which is an important part of the process of attachment
So it seems that fathers do have the potential to be the more emotion-focused primary care figure
- they can provide the responsiveness required for a close emotional attachment it perhaps only express this when given the role of primary caregiver

Question 25

Evaluating the Role of the Father Strength

Answer 25

One strength of the research into the role of the father is that it can be used tov offer reassuring advice to parents in different types of families
For example, in single-father families, they can be reassured that they will be able to take care of their baby and offer that emotional relationship that a child needs. Firstly, this is because their testosterone levels will drop, meaning they are more able to have those emotional feelings, and secondly because research has shown that primary caregiver fathers act and have a highly similar relationship with children as primary caregiver mothers do
This is a strength because it means that parental anxiety about the role of the father ca be reduced

Question 26

Evaluating the Role of the Father Limitation

Answer 26

One limitation of research is that the question “What is the Role of the father?’ In the context of attachment is much more complex than it sounds at first
For example, different researchers may interpret this question in different ways:
- what is the father supposed to do?
- what jobs should the father be responsible for?
- how can the father be the best possible parent?
There are multiple ways this question could be interpreted. Comparing research can be difficult because researchers may have different interpretations of this question
This is a limitation because it means that it is difficult to answer this question and compare research into this area because it really does depend on what specific role of the father is being considered by the researcher

Question 27

Evaluation the role of the Father Further Criticism

Answer 27

A further criticism is that research has left unanswered questions, such as if father have a distinct role then what aren’t children without fathers different?
For example, as mentioned previously, Grossman’s study found that fathers, as a secondary attachment figure have an important role in their children’s upbringing. However other studied such as MacCallum and Golombok (2004) have found that children growing up in single or same-sex parent families do not develop any differently from those in two parent heterosexual families
This is a limitation because it means that the question as to whether fathers behave a distinct role is left answered.
However, it may actually be that these lines of research are not actually in conflict. It could simply be that fathers take typically on a distinctive role in two-parent heterosexual families, but that parents in single-mother or same-sex families simply adapt to accommodate the role of the farther. This means that the question of a distinctive role for fathers is clear after all. When present, fathers tend to adopt a distinctive role, but families can adapt to not having a father

Question 28

Economic Implications From Research into the Role of the Father

Answer 28

The best choice for some families may be that the mothers returns and the father stays at home with the child, which could be useful if the mother has the higher wage
Research has suggested that children can benefit equally with just the father, so this might be a relief to the mother who can return to work and the child will still develop normally with just the father

Question 29

Why Might Psychologists Use Animal Studies

Answer 29

Easier from a consent point of view
- it can be seen as having fewer ethical issues
- in attachment, researchers are more likely to be able to separate animals from parents than infants
From a practical point of view, more participants can be gathered quickly in animals for attachment research
- there are shorter pregnancies and multiple offspring at once (bigger litters)
- for humans, pregnancy are 40 weeks and often only have one child at a time

Question 30

Lorenz’s Research Introduction

Question 31

Lorenz’s Research

Answer 31

The control group in his research, hatched in the presence of their mother and followed her
The experiment group, hatched in the incubator and they followed Lorenz
When the two groups were mixed together, the control group followed the mother and the experimental group followed Lorenz
This shows that imprinting is long lasting and accurate

Question 32

Critical Period for Imprinting

Answer 32

The critical period is the time in which imprinting must occur
- it can be a brief period of time
- for geese, it is 3-30 hours after birth, with the peak being 16 hours
Evolution can explain imprinting
- evolution is anything that you can do or adapt to help you survive and reproduce
- any behaviour that helps you to do this is an adaptive behaviour
- imprinting helps vulnerable chicks survive

Question 33

Lorenz’s Research Further Findings

Answer 33

After observing that birds that imprinted on a human would often later display courtship behaviour towards humans, Lorenz also investigated the relationship between imprinting and adult mate preferences
He described a case study of a peacock that had been reared in the reptile. House of a zoo, where the first moving objects the peacock saw after hatching were a giant tortoise
As an adult, this peacock would only direct courtship behaviours towards giant tortoises
- the peacock had undergone sexual imprinting

Question 34

Lorenz’s Research Strength

Answer 34

One strength of Lorenz’s research is that there is further research support for the concept of imprinting
For example, a classic study by Guiton (1966) with chicks used yellow rubber gloves to feed them during the critical period and the chicks imprinted on the glove. The chicks were then later found trying to mate with the yellow rubber glove
This was further backed up by a more recent study by Regloin & Vallorrtigara (1995), who exposed chicks to smile shape combinations that moved, such as a triangle with a rectangle in front. A range of shape combinations were then moved in front of them and the chicks followed the original most closely
This is is a strength because it supports the view that young animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint (including sexual imprinting) on a moving object presented in the critical period, as predicted by Lorenz

Question 35

Lorenz’s Research Limitation

Answer 35

One limitation to Lorenz’s research is there is a question of whether we can generalise findings an conclusions from bird to humans
For example, human attachment is reciprocal. This means that attachment in humans is two-way. A parent has attached to the infant and the infant has attached to the parent
In birds, it is much more one way and the infant is attached to the mother only
This is a limitation because it means that it is probably not appropriate to generalise Lorenz’s ideas to humans

Question 36

Harlow’s Research (Pre-Study Context)

Answer 36

Harry Harlow (1958) carried out animal research using rhesus monkeys, which are much more similar to humans than the geese Lorenz used
As a part of his work, Harlow had separated new born monkeys form their ,others and raised them in individual cages
Each cage contained a baby blanket and Harlow observed that the monkeys became intensely attached to the blankets and showed great distress when the blankest were taken away from them
This led to him hypothesising ( a testable, predictive statement) that a soft object serves some of the functions of a mother and he developed a research study to test this theory

Question 37

Harlow’s Research

Answer 37

New born monkeys separated from their mothers were places in individual cages with a surrogate ‘mother’
- some were made from a wire and fitted with a bottle providing milk
- some were made from a soft, cuddly terry cloth with a baby bottle proving milk
- some were given both wire ‘mother’ that provided milk and a soft ‘mother’ with no bottle
The baby monkeys spent most of the time clinging to their cloth mother and sought comfort from the cloth one when frightened
- e.g. by a noisy mechanical toy
When the cloth mother rocked, was warm and provided food, the attachment was even stronger
This led Harlow to conclude that monkeys have an learnt need for contact comfort which is as basic as their need for food
- monkeys only went to the wire ‘mother’ for food, showing that food wasn’t enough

Question 38

Harlow’s Research into Adulthood

Answer 38

Harlow also followed then monkeys into adulthood to see if early maternal deprivation (technically maternal privation) had a permanent effect (lead to negative emotional and social effects)
Severe consequences were found, with these monkeys more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys, including being less skilled at mating
When they did become mothers, some of the deprived monkeys neglected their young and others attacked their children, even killing them in some cases (some even tried to eat their children)
They monkeys raised with the plain wire mothers were the most dysfunctional, but do note that those reared with a cloth covered mother were also dysfunctional
Like Lorenz, Harlow also concluded that there was a critical period for attachment formation
- a mother figure has to be introduced to a young monkey within 90 days for an attachment to form
- after this time, attachment was impossible and the damage done by early maternal deprivation became irreversible

Question 39

Harlow’s Research Strengths and Limitations

Answer 39

Strengths:
- it was filmed, which allows for inter-rather reliability
- it is a longitudinal study, which meant it was able to find the long-term effects
Weaknesses:
- there is the confounding variable of living in a cage which is not their natural environment and therefore this could be an additional cause of the negative impacts in the long term
- we still can’t generalise these findings because we aren’t monkeys, however, there is a chance that we can generalise because monkeys are a relatively close species and similar findings in humans surrounding long-term deprivation have been found

Question 40

Harlow’s Research Limitation and Counterpoint

Answer 40

One limitation of the Harlow research was the short and long term harm of the monkeys
For example, it was clear that the monkeys in this study suffered from emotional harm from being reared in isolation. This was evident when the monkeys were placed with a normal monkey (reared by a mother) and they sat huddled in a corner in a state of persistent fear and depression. In addition, Harlow created a state of anxiety in female monkeys which had implications once they became parents. Such monkeys became so neurotic that they smashed their infant’s face into the flow and rubbed it back and forth
This is a limitation because it shown ethical issue in the research. Although, this was the 1950s, meaning there were different rules, regulations and guidelines for treatment of animals in research issues
However, it could also be seen as vital in convincing people about the importance of emotional care in hospitals, children’s homes and day care
The research also influenced the work of John Bowlby, possibly the most important psychologists in attachment theory
So, we need to consider the cost to benefits of the research

Question 41

Learning Theory

Answer 41

Dollard and Miller (1950) proposed that caregiver-infant attachment can be explained by learning theory
To put it simply, they proposed that children learn to love (get attached to) whoever feeds them
You may therefore sometimes see this explanation referred to as a ‘cupboard love’ theory
They may learn this through classical or operant conditioning

Question 42

Learning Theory and Classical Conditioning

Answer 42

Learning through association
As baby will cry (unconditioned stimulus) and will have food next to them (unconditioned response)
The baby is then hungry (neutral stimulus) and is fed (neutral response)
Then, the baby will cry when hungry (unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus) and will be fed and stop crying (unconditioned response)
Eventually, the baby will learn that by crying when hungry (conditioned stimulus) they will be fed (conditioned response)

Question 43

Learning Theory and Classical Conditioning

Answer 43

Learning through association
Baby is hungry (UCR)and begets a bottle (UCS)
Baby cries (NR) and gets a bottle (NS)
Baby is hungry and cries (UCR + NR) and gets a bottle (UCS)
Baby learns that if it cries (CR) and gets a bottle (CS)

Question 44

Learning Theory and Operant Conditioning

Answer 44

Learning through reinforcement and drive reduction
1 baby is hungry (primary drive)
2 baby cries to inform parents that they are hungry
3 parents feeds the baby
4 negative feelings of hunger go away
5 baby associates this person with food and desires to stay close to them
6 strengthens bond to parents who fed them
7 caregiver becomes a secondary inforcer through association and the baby strives to stay close to them (attachment = secondary drive)

Question 45

Learning Theory and Reciprocity

Answer 45

So far, we have only considered why a baby attaches to their caregiver
But remember that attachment is reciprocal
Operant conditioning can offer some explanation here as well
At the same time as the baby is reinforced for crying, the caregiver is reinforced for feeding the baby as the baby stops crying
The caregiver is receiving negative reinforcement (the negative feeling of the baby crying is taken away)

Question 46

Learning Theory Limitation - Animal Studies

Answer 46

One limitation of learning theory explanations for attachment is lack of support from studies conducted on animals
For example, in Harlow’s study, monkeys were fed with a wire monkey and had a cloth monkey that did not feed it. When the baby monkeys were sacred by a robot, they automatically ran to the cloth mother for comfort, rather than the fire monkey that fed them. The work from Lorenz also shows opposite findings to learning theory. In his research, he found that ducklings form attachments to the first moving thing it sees, even if it is a toy. They will remember this object when others are introduced to them too
This is a limitation as these pieces of research offer alternative theories of attachment (with findings to support them), that oppose learning theory

Question 47

Learning Theory Limitation - Human Studies

Answer 47

One limitation of learning theory for attachment is lack of support from studies conducted on humans
For example, Schaffer and Emerson conducted the Glasgow Baby Study and formed the stages of attachment: asocial stage, indiscriminate attachment, specific attachment and multiple attachments. Babies in the specific attachment stage show that the baby wouldn’t always have the attachment to the primary caregiver, which would be the case if Learning Theory was true. Learning Theory says that they should always be attached to the pcg, as they are the one to feed them, but this doesn’t always happen. The Isabella Study also showed how interactional synchrony improved attachment, as babies copied a caregiver’s facial expressions, which does not involve food, but still improves attachment
This is a limitation as these respectable studies on humans offer up other explanations and opposing for attachment, which were informed by their findings

Question 48

Learning Theory Strength and Counterpoint

Answer 48

One strength of learning theory explanations for attachment is that elements of conditioning could be involved in some aspects of attachment, even if food does not play the sole or central role in attachment
For example, a baby may associate feeling warm and comfortable with the presence of a particular adult, and thus may influence the baby’s choice of their main caregiver due to the warm and comforting nature of the mother
This means that learning theory may still be useful in undertaking the development of attachments
However, this theory is rather reductionist as it focuses on only basic processes n
Because of this, it neglects more complex, emotional processes and mechanisms that play a role in attachment
Therefore, there may be more factors involved in attachment and selection of primary attachment figures

Question 49

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment Introduction

Answer 49

John Bowlby (1958, 1969) rejected learning theory as an explanation for attachment
“We’re it true, an infant of a year to two should take readily to whoever feeds him, and this is clearly not the case”
- i.e. Learning Theory is too simplistic to explain complex behaviour a such as attachment
- it needs a more complex theory

Question 50

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment - Key Principles

Answer 50

There are five aspects to Bowlby’s Theory:
- evolution
- monotropy
- internal working model
- social releasers
- critical period
(Every mother instinctively snuggles children)

Question 51

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment - Evolution

Answer 51

Bowlby suggested that attachment is an innate (biological), adaptive process that had endure throughout evolution (which people often boil down to adaptions to help people survive and reproduce, which is often seen as the meaning of human life)
Child’s PoV - human children would die very quickly without someone to look after them
- forming an attachment with an adult increases chances of survival
Parent’s PoV - attaching to their baby helps ensure successful reproduction

Question 52

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment - Monotropy

Answer 52

Main Information:
Bowlby placed great emphasis on a child’s attachment to one particular caregiver
This attachment is qualitatively different from other attachment
- while Bowlby called this particular caregiver ‘mother’, he made it clear that this caregiver doesn’t have to be the biological mother, or even female
Secondary Information (for longer mark questions)
He believed that more time spent with this primary attachment figure, the better:
- the law of accumulated separation - the effects of every separation from the primary attachment figure add up ‘and the safest does is therefore zero’
- the law of continuity - the more constant and predictable a child’s care, the better the quality of their attachment

Question 53

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment - Internal Working Model

Answer 53

(Template in your mind about what relationships should look like - a schema)
Bowlby proposed that a child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their primary attachment figure
This is the internal working model because it serves as a model, or template, for what relationships are like
So, a child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver will be likely to form an expectation that all relationships are loving and reliable, and they will bring these qualities to future relationships
- including their relationships with their own children when they become parents
However, a child when first relationship involves poor treatment will tend to form further poor relationships in which they expect such treatment from and/or treat others in that way

Question 54

Social Releasers

Answer 54

Babies are helpless at birth and are born with the tendency to display certain behaviours and qualities which help to gain an adult response (and in turn will help them ensure survival)
These are known as social releases
- this relates to the reciprocity that they show during alter phases
Some social releases might include:
- crying (pitch and tone) - this can induce breast milk production
- gestures and body movements
- gurgling, cooing, snorting and laughing
- smiling
- generally looking cute

Question 55

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment - Critical Period

Answer 55

Bowlby argues for the existence of a critical period for the development of attachments
- he argues mothering is almost useless for most children if delayed after 12 months
If attachment does not form within the first 2 years, children may be unable to form relationships later in life
This idea was later refined to be a more sensitive period
Around 6 months old, a child is maximally sensitive to forming an attachment and this may extend up to the age of 2
Bowlby believed that attachments can still form later on, with increased effort on the part of the caregiver

Question 56

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment Strength - Practical Applications

Answer 56

One strength of Bowlby’s theory is that it has practical applications
For example, the law of continuity states that attachment depends on having constant and predictable care. Mary parents opt for childminders rather than using nursery care for the sake of continuity and predictability. Studies show that there is indeed better continuity in the care provided by childminders. In observations Melhuish et al. (1990) found that childminders held, displayed affection towards and communicated with children twice as often as nursery workers.
This is a strength because the theory allows us to develop improvements in childcare
Extension - in 2013, the Government changed regulations on adult:child ratios for nurseries and childminders so that childcare professionals are now able to look after more children, but Bowlby’s theory would suggest that this was a bad idea because there will be less continuity for the children

Question 57

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment Strength - Supporting Evidence

Answer 57

Another strength of Bowlby’s theory is that there is evidence supporting the role of social releasers
For example, Brazelton et al. (1975) observed babies elicit interactions with adults using social releasers. The researchers then instructed the babies’ primary attachment figure to ignore their babies’ social releasers. The normally responsive babies became increasingly distressed and some eventually curled up and laid emotionlessly
This is a strength because it illustrates the role of social releasers in emotional development and suggests that they are important in the process of attachment developments

Question 58

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment Strength - Support for the Internal Working Model

Answer 58

A third strength of Bowlby’s theory is that there is support for the internal working molecules
For example, Bailey et al. (2007) assessed relationships in 99 mothers and their 1 year old children and the same 99 mothers and their own parents. The researchers found that mothers with poor attachment to their own primary attachment figures were more likely to have poorly attached babies
This is a strength because it supports Bowlby’s idea that a primary caregivers’ ability to form attachments to their babies is influenced by their internal working model

Question 59

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment Limitation - Challenges to Monotropy

Answer 59

One limitation of Bowlby’s theory is that the concept of monotropy has been challenged
For example, Schaffer & Emerson (1964) found that although most babies did attach to one person at first, there was a significant minority who formed multiple attachments at the same time. Additionally, Rutter (1981) pointed out that several indicators of attachment (e.g. distress if the person leaves the child, increase in exploration in strange situations when the attached person is present) has been shown for siblings, grandparents and peers, as well;;p as the primary attachment figure
This is a limitation because it means that Bowlby may have been incorrect in stating that there is a unique quality and importance to the child’s primary attachment

Question 60

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment - Misinterpretations

Answer 60

One other point to consider with Bowlby’s theory of attachment is that he has been misquoted, with people taking his idea of ‘monotropy’ to mean ‘one key relationship with the mother’, which he never once stated
However, this has led to criticisms of his work that aren’t valid
- for example, according to Lamb (1979), the father’s care giving can be just as effective as the mother’s and there is little difference in how children form attachments to both parents
- this was presented as a limitation of Bowlby’s theory, but it isn’t, as Bowlby would agree with this
His theory was also used to promote the idea that stay-at-home mothers is the “best”, setting up mothers for blame for anything that goes wrong for the child in the future, as well as restricting women and mothers in the workplace
- again, Bowlby himself never suggested this

Question 61

Strange Situation

Answer 61

The Strange Situation is a controlled observation procedure designed to measure the security of attachment a baby displays towards a caregiver
It takes place in a room with attractive toys and a two-way mirror and/or cameras through which the psychologists can observe the baby’s behaviour
As this room is set up in a very controlled way, this is taking place in a laboratory setting

Question 62

Strange Situation - Behaviours Assessed

Answer 62

Proximity seeking - infants will seek to remain close to their attachment figure
Exploration and secure base behaviour - this is to which degree the child will move around the room and explore, then if they will return to the secure base (the caregiver), or if they explore or do not return
Stranger anxiety - are the infants uncomfortable or unhappy with being left with adults they do not know, do they try to escape and avoid the stranger?
Separation anxiety - are the infants upset when the primary caregiver leave the room, do they cry, do they try to follow the caregiver or show anger at being left?
Response to reunion - how does the child respond to their primary attachment figure returning, do they show happiness and joy, or are they annoyed at being left alone?

Question 63

Stranger Situation Procedure and What It Tests

Answer 63

1 - The caregiver encourages the baby to explore - this tests exploration and secure base
2 - a stranger enters, talks to the caregiver and approaches the baby - tests stranger anxiety, will the child react differently when a stranger is in the room?
3 - caregiver leaves baby and stranger together - tests separation anxiety, how will they responds to the caregiver leaving and being left will the stranger?
4 - caregiver returns and stranger leaves - tests reunion behaviour and exploration base, does the baby respond to the baby and begin exploring again?
5 - mother leaves, leaving baby alone - test separation anxiety, the baby is completely isolated here
6 - the stranger returns - tests stranger and separation anxiety, baby is separated from the mother and isn left alone with a stranger
7 - mother returns and stranger leaves - tests reunion behaviour, how does the baby baby react to caregiver returning and being left alone with the caregiver again

Question 64

Types of Attachment

Answer 64

Ainsworth et al.(1978) found distinct patterns in the ways that babies behaved and she identified three main tapes of attachment
- secure attachment (type B)
- insecure-avoidant (type A)
- insecure-resistant (type C)
There is also a fourth type, disorganised attachment (type D), however this is not tal;led about as often

Question 65

Secure Attachment

Answer 65

Infants explore happily when their mother is present but regularly go back to (proximity seeking and secure base behaviour)
They show distress when she leaves (separation anxiety) and relief or joy when she returns (response to reunion)
They show a clear preference for the mother and show anxiety in the presence of a stranger (fear of strangers)
About 65%-75% of British babies are classified as secure
Results In Strange Situation:
Prolixity seeking - lots
Exploration and secure base - high
Stranger anxiety - high
Separation anxiety - high
Reunion response - prevalent

Question 66

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Answer 66

Infants explore freely when their mother is present or absent
They do not seek proximity or show secretary-base behaviour
They show little or no reaction when the mother leaves or returns - they may even avoid contact on her return
About 20%-25% of British babies are classified as insecure-avoidant
Results in Strange Situation:
Proximity seeking - no
Exploration and secure base - explore freely but not secure base
Stranger anxiety - no
Separation anxiety - no
Reunion response - no

Question 67

Insecure-Resistant Attachment

Answer 67

Infants seek greater proximity than others and so explore less
They show high levels of both separation anxiety and stranger anxiety
They resist comfort when reunited with their caregiver and may reject her and push her away
About 3% of British babies are classified as insecure resistant
Results in Strange Situation:
Proximity seeking - extreme
Exploration and secure base - explore less
Stranger anxiety - extreme
Separation anxiety - no - push away

Question 68

Disorganised Attachment

Answer 68

An unusual type of attachment with a mix of resistant and avoidant behaviours shown
Type D babies have generally experienced some form of severe neglect or abuse and most go on to develop psychological disorders by adulthood

Question 69

Strange Situation Strength - Good Predictive Validity

Answer 69

Once strength of the strange situation is that its outcome predicts a number of aspects of the baby’s development
A large body of research has shown that babies and toddlers assessed as Type B (secure) tend to have better outcomes than others both in late childhood and in adulthood
In childhood, the included better achievement in school and less involvement in bullying (McCormick et al. 2016, Kokkines 2007)
Securely attached babies tend to have better mental health in adulthood (Ward et al. 2006).
Those babies assessed as having insecure-resistant and those not falling into type A, B, or C tend to have the worst outcomes
This suggested that the strange situation measures something important and meaningful
Counterpoint - The Strange Situation clearly measures something important that is associated with later development
However, not all psychology’s believe this something is attachment
For example, Jerome Kagan (1982) suggested that genetically-influenced anxiety levels could account for variations in attachment behaviour in the Strange Situation and development
This means that the Strange Situation may not actually measure attachment

Question 70

Strange Situation Strength - Good Reliability

Answer 70

A further strength of the Strange Situation is good inter-reliability (the agreement between observers)
Johanna Bick at al. (2012) tested inter-reliability for the Strange Situation for a team of trained observers and found agreement on attachment type in 94% of cases
This high level of reliability may be because the procedure takes place under controlled conditions and because behaviours (such as proximity seeking and stranger anxiety) involve large movements and are therefore easy to observe
For me maple, anxious babies cry and crawl away from strangers
This means that we can be confident that attachment types as assessed by the strange situation does not depend on subjective judgment

Question 71

Strange Situation Limitation

Answer 71

One limitation of the strange situation isn that it may not be a valid measure of attachment in different cultures
The Strange Situation was developed in Britain and the US. It may be culture-bound, i.e. only valid for use in certain cultures (in this case in Europe and the US). One reason for this is that babies have different experiences in different cultures and these experiences may affect their responses to the Strange Situation
For example, in one Japanese study by Keiko Takanashi (1986), babies displayed very high levels of separation anxiety and so a disproportionate number were classifies as insecure-resistant. Takanashi (1990) suggests that this anxiety response was not due to high rated of attachment insecurity, but to the unusual nature of the experience in Japan where mother-baby separation in very rare
This means that it is very difficult to know hat the Strange Situation is measuring when used outside of Europe and the US

Question 72

Cultural Variations of Attachment Research Context

Answer 72

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenburg’s (VI + K) research (1988)
VI and K aimed to investigate cultural differences in the proportions of each attachment type both between and within cultures
Between cultures - different strange situations compared between different countries
Within cultures - different strange situations compared within the same culture

Question 73

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research Procedure

Answer 73

For their procedure, the researchers found 32 studies of attachment that has used the Strange Situation, with 199o children used across these
These were from 8 different countries:
- GB
- Sweden
- Japan
- Netherlands
- USA
- Israel
- Germany
- China
However, it wasn’t an equal spread of studies from each study
- for example, the USA made up 15 of these studies
VI + K carried out a meta-analysis of the data from the 32 studies
- i.e. combined and analysed all of the findings, weighting each study for its sample size

Question 74

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research Numerical Findings

Answer 74

(In %)
GB - secure=75 avoidant=22 resistant=3
Sweden - secure=75 avoidant=21 resistant=4
Japan - secure=68 avoidant=5 resistant=27
Netherlands - secure=67 avoidant=26 resistant=7
USA - secure=65 avoidant=21 resistant=14
Israel - secure=64 avoidant=7 resistant=29
Germany - secure=57 avoidant=35 resistant=8
China - secure=50 avoidant=25 resistant=25
Overall Mean - secure=65 resistant=20 resistant=15

Question 75

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research - Summary of Findings

Answer 75

Wide variations between countries
In all countries, secure attachment was the most common, but this varied from 50% in China to 75% in GB
In individualist countries (GB, Sweden, Netherlands, USA and Germany), rates of resistant attachment wee all under 15%, similar to Ainworth’s findings
In collectivist countries (Japan, Israel, China), rates of resistant attachment were much higher, at 25% or above
An interesting finding was that the variation in results within the same country was actually much greater than those between countries
- for example, in the USA, one study found that only 46% were securely attached, compared to another ISA study that found that 90% were securely attached

Question 76

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research - Italian Study

Answer 76

An Italian Study conducted by Alessandra Simonelli et al. (2014), which was carried out in Italy to see whether the proportions of babies of different attachment types still match those found in previous studies
The researchers assessed 79 babies, aged 12 months, using the Strange Situation
They found that 50% we’re secure, with 36% avoidant
This is a lower rate of secure attachment and the highest rate of avoidant attachment that has been found in many studies
The researchers suggested that this is because increasing numbers of mothers of very young children working long hours and use professional childcare
These findings suggest that patterns of attachment types are not static, but vary in line with cultural change

Question 77

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research - Korean Study

Answer 77

A study in Korea, conducted by Mi Kyoung Jil et al. (2012) compared the proportions of attachment types in Korea to other studies
The Strange Situation was used to assess 87 babies
The overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in most countries, with most babies being secure
However, more of those classified as insecurely attached were resistant and only 1 baby avoidant
This distribution is similar to the distribution of attachment types found in Japan (VI + K 1988)
Since Japan and Korea have quite similar child-rearing styles, this similarity might be explained in terms of child-rearing style

Question 78

Cultural Variation in Attachment Research - Conclusions

Answer 78

Secure attachment seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures
This supports Bowlby’s idea that attachment is innate and universal and that secure attachment s the norm
However, research also clearly shows that cultural practises have an influence on attachment type
Some differences in child-rearing within different cultures are:
- childcare (more likely rot lead to avoidant attachment)
- length of child leave
- teaching children different behaviours, such as independence
- time with the mother

Question 79

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research Strength

Answer 79

One strength of the research carried out by VI + K is that most of the studies were carried out by indigenous psychologists
Indigenous psychologists are those from the same cultural background as the participants
For example, VI + K included a research by a German team (Grossmann et al. 1981) and Keiko Takahashi (1986) who is Japanese
This kind of research means that many of the potential problems in cross-cultural research can be avoided, such as researchers’ misunderstandings of the language used by participants or having difficulties communicating instructions to them. Difficulties could also include bias because of one nation’s stereotypes of another
This is a strength because it means that there is an excellent chance that researchers and participants communicated successfully, enhancing the validity of the data collected
Counterpoint - However, this has not been true of all cross-cultural attachment research
For example, Gilda Morelli and Edward Tronick (1991) were outsiders from America when they studied child-rearing no patterns of attachment in the Efé of Zaire
Their data might have been effected by difficulties in gathering data from participants outside their own culture
This means that the data from some countries might have been affected by bias and difficulty in cross-cultural communication

Question 80

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research Limitation - Confounding Variables

Answer 80

One limitation of cross-cultural research, including meta-analyses of patterns of attachment types, is the impact of confounding variables of findings
Studies conducted in different countries are not usually matched for methodology when they are compared in reviews or meta-analyses. Sample characteristics such as poverty, social classes and urban/rural make-up can confound results, as can the base of participants studied in different countries. Environmental variables might also differ between studies and confound results. For example, the size of the room and the availability of interesting toys there (babies might appear explore more in studies conducted in small rooms with attractive toys compared to large, bare rooms). Less visible proximity-seeking because of room size might make a child more likely to be classified as avoidant
This is a limitation because it means that looking at attachment behaviour in different, non-matched studies conducted in different countries may not tell us anything about cross-cultural patterns of attachment

Question 81

Cultural Variations in Attachment Research Limitation - Imposed Etic

Answer 81

A further limitation of cross-cultural research is in trying to impose a test designed for one cultural context to another context
Cross-cultural psychology includes the ideas of emic (cultural uniqueness) and etic (cross-cultural universality). Imposed etic occur when we assume an idea or technique that irks in one cultural context will work in an other
An example of this in attachment research is the use on babies’ responses to reunion go the caregiver in the Strange Situation. In Britain and the US, lack of affection on reunion may indicate an avoidant attachment. But in Germany, such behaviour would be more likely interpreted as independence (which is seen as highly desirable in Germany) rather than insecurity. Therefore, that part of the Strange Situation may not work in Germany
This is a limitation because it means that behaviours measured by the Strange Situation may not have the same meanings in different cultural contexts, and comparing them across cultures meaningless

Question 82

Introduction to Theory of Maternal Deprivation

Answer 82

Bowlby’s earlier work with children led him to become particularly interested in how the lack of continued presence of care from a mother or mother substitute impacted the mother
After studying the subject for some time, he began to develop his ideas on the importance of attachment on child development
‘What occurs in the earliest months and years of life can have deep and long-lasting effects… Mother love in infancy is as important fort mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health’

Question 83

What Is Deprivation?

Answer 83

Deprivation is not simply separation
Separation simply means that the child is not in the presence of the primary attachment figure
Brief separations, particularly where the child is with a substitute caregiver who can provide good emotional care, is not significant for development
They might experience this at day care or with other members of the family
Deprivation is when a child is in need of emotional care and they are not getting it
This may be experienced with the death or loss of a care giver (death, divorce, ill health) or with neglect and abuse (for example within the foster care system)

Question 84

Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

Answer 84

If a child fails to develop a “warm, intimate and continuous relationship with the mother (or permanent mother substitute)” during the critical period then the child is at increased risk of experiencing negative effects on their development

Question 85

Effects of Maternal Deprivation

Answer 85

The DADDI Effects
Delinquency
Affectionless psychopathy (no guilt or empathy)
Decreased self-esteem
Depression
Intellectual retardation (lover IQ/reduced academic performance)
These are long lasting and difficult to reverse

Question 86

Bowlby’s Study of Maternal Deprivation Procedure

Answer 86

Bowlby’s hypothesis is supported by his 1944 research ‘study44 juvenile thieves: Their character and home life’
Bowlby compared 44 child thieves with 44 other emotionally maladjusted children (who has committed no crime)
Procedure:
Children would be given an IQ test
The child would then be interviewed about their early life and their experiences
The mother was also interviewed as well (separately)
This was approx a 2 hour process
It was conducted by a social worker and a psychologist
They then met with Bowlby and gave him their findings
Bowlby would diagnose the child
- one possible diagnosis the could be given was an affectionless psychopathy

Question 87

Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal Deprivation Findings and Conclusion

Answer 87

32% of the thieves were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths
- this was 14%
0 of the non-thieves were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths
Of those children that were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths, 86% of them had experienced early and prolonged separation (or deprivation) from their mothers
- very few other children had
This means that 12 of these affectionless psychopaths had experienced deprivation
Bowlby concluded that early and prolonged separation (or deprivation) is associated with affectionless psychopathy

Question 88

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Limitation - Flawed Evidence

Answer 88

One limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is that it is based on flawed evidence
For example, in the 44 Thieves study, it was Bowlby himself who both carried out the family interviews and the assessor affectionless psychopathy. There was a potential that he may have shown unconscious bias (researcher bias)
In addition, the case histories developed in the 44 Thieves study were largely based on the recollections of the parents about events that happened many years previously
This could pose an issue because of:
- social desirability bias
- may not have an accurate memory if they have been absent (this may have been due to mental health issues which could further affect their memory of events)
- if there was separation/deprivation, they liked weren’t preset of a lot of their life

Question 89

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Limitation - Flawed Theory

Answer 89

In addition, other sources of evidence Bowlby used when developing his maternal deprivation theory are also flawed
For example, he was influenced by a piece of research by Goldfarb (1943), who studied two groups of children, 15 children in each group, aged 6months-3years. One group was erased in almost complete social isolation in an orphanage, the other group were raised in foster care. The ‘institution’ group lagged behind the ‘foster’ group on all measures taken, including IQ (measured intelligence), abstract thinking, social maturity and rule following. This would appear to be a good supporting evidence for the theory of maternal deprivation, but this study has a number of confounding variables because the children in the orphanages had experienced a great deal of trauma in addition to prolonged separation from primary caregivers
This is a limitation because it means that Bowlby’s original source of evidence for maternal deprivation have serious flaws, reducing the validity of the theory of maternal deprivation

Question 90

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Limitation - Not Backed By Other Studies

Answer 90

Another limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is that it is not always backed up by other research studies, as similar studies have failed to provide similar results
For example, Lewis (1954) studied 500 young people and he found no correlation between amount of early separation and levels of later psychopathy
This is a limitation because other research about this theory failed and showed inconclusive results, suggesting that Bowlby’s theory was a fluke

Question 91

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Strength - Newer Lines of Research

Answer 91

One strength is that newer lines of research have provided some modest support for the theory of maternal deprivation
For example, Levy et al. (2003) showed that separating baby rats from thinner mothers for as little as a day had a permanent effect on their social development
Additionally, Gao et al. (2010) also partially supported Bowlby by throwing that poor quality maternal care was associated with high rates of psychopathy in adults
This is a strength because it does show there are other sources of evidence for Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Question 92

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Limitation - Confused Terminology

Answer 92

Another limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is that Bowlby may have confused deprivation (the lack of a continued presence of care after an attachment has been developed) with privation (the failure to form any attachment in the first place)
For example, Rutter (1981) pointed out that the severe long-term damage Bowlby associated with deprivation is actually more likely to be the result of privation. Many of the children in the 44 thieves study had very disrupted early lives and therefore may have never had the opportunity to from attachments. Similarly, the children in the Goldfarb study were orphaned and therefore more likely to have been ‘prived’ rather than deprived’
This is a limitation because it means that Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation may lack internal validity

Question 93

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Limitation - Critical Period

Answer 93

A final criticism made of the theory of maternal deprivation is that there is evidence against Bowlby’s idea of a critical period
For example, the case of the Czech twins (Koluchova 1976 and 1991):
Identical twin boys were born in Czechoslovakia in 1960
Their mother died so they spent their first 18 months in an institution
They then went to live with with their farther and his wife, who disliked them and they were shut away in a small, unheated room and kept away from the rest of the family
They were deprived from power food, exercise, the sun and human contact
They were then rescued at age 7, looking like 3 year olds
They were abnormally small, used gestures to communicate and could barely talk
The twins were placed in a residential care nursery for preschool children
At age 8, they were placed in the care of two sisters who provided them with a loving and secure family environment
The twins soon put on weight and learnt how to walk and talk
They went to primary and then secondary schools
By age 14, they were in a class of children who were only 18 months younger than them
Their language development was normal for their age, their IQ, which was estimated to be around 40, was 100
The twins then went on to become married, had children and are reported to have warm and stable relationships

Question 94

Theory of Maternal Deprivation Strength - Practical Applications

Answer 94

One strength of the theory of maternal deprivation is that it has practical applications
For example, a later study by Bowlby (1956) studied a group of children who had TB. The children were hospitalised, where the n using was impersonal. Many of the children, however, were visited weekly by their families and as a result, bond disruption was minimised
Information about the children was gathered at the ages of 7 and 14 and it was found that there were no differences between the control group and the TB group in terms of delinquency or in problems forming relationships. It would seem that if bond disruption is minimised then separation is not harmful in the long run
This is a strength because it means that some children who experience disruption in attachment as a result of hospitalisation can still have healthy psychological development if there is planning to ensure that the bond disruption in minimised

Question 95

Orphan Studies

Answer 95

Orphan studies investigate children who have been placed in care because their parents are unable to look after them
An orphan is a child whose parents have either died or have abandoned them personally
Psychologists may use orphans to study maternal deprivation because:
- it is fairly certain that they have experienced maternal deprivation from early in life - it is high in validity
- it allows them to study maternal deprivation in an ethical way

Question 96

Orphan Studies Context

Answer 96

Romania was the main focus in orphan studies because:
From the 1960s-1989, the Communists (the dictatorship) demanded all families to have a lot of children to boost the Labour force in the USSR
- they wanted families to have 5 children
This saw the banning of contraception and abortion being banned
The country was very poor and parents couldn’t feed all of these children, so many go put into orphanages
After the fall of the USSR, the horrific conditions in these orphanages were discovered, and many children from these orphanages were adopted to countries all over the world

Question 97

Rutter’s English and Romanian Adoptee (ERA) Study

Answer 97

AIM - find if being in the Romanian orphanages affected development
PROCEDURE - followed 165 Romanian orphans adopted into Britain to water extent good care could make up for early experiences of deprivation
Participants were stratified into groups of the ages that they were adopted at:
>6 months, 6-12 months, 12-24 months, 24 + months
They were studied physically, cognitively, emotionally and psychologically
Teachers and parents (and from aged 11, the children themselves) were interviewed about development
There was also a control group of 52 British adoptees
FINDINGS - all children recovered from being physically malnourished rather quickly
They were given IQ tests at aged 11 (average IQ for this age is 100) and:
- Before 6 months = 102
- 6 months - 2 years = 86
- 2 years + = 77
Those adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachment and had higher rates of ADHD

Question 98

Zeanah et al. (2005) BEI Project

Answer 98

PROCEDURE - assessed attachment in 95 children aged 21-31 months who spent their lives in institutional care
They compared these to a control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution
Their attachment type was measures using the strange situation and caregivers were asked about unusual social behaviour including clingy, attention-seeking behaviours, directed inappropriately towards adults
FINDINGS - they found that 74% of the control group were securely attached in the strange situation
However, only 19% of the institutional group swerve securely attached, with 65% of them being classified at disorganised attachment
The description of disinhibition attachment also applied to 44% of the institutionalised children, opposed to 20% of the control group

Question 99

Additional Romanian Orphan Study

Answer 99

Chugani et al. (2001) administered PET scans to a sample of 10 children from Romania compared and were compared to PET scans of 17 ‘normal’ adults and 10 ‘normal’ children
Assessments showed mild neurocongnitive impairment, impulsivity and attention and social deficits
Specifically, the Romanian orphans showed significantly decreased activity in the orbital frontal gyrus part of the prefrontal cortex hippocampus, the amygdala and the brain stem
Chugani concluded that the dysfunction in these brain regions may have resulted from the stress of early deprivation and might be linked to the long-term cognitive and behavioural deficits

Question 100

The Effects of Institutionalisation

Answer 100

1) Disinhibited Attachment
An adaption to living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period for attachment formation
In poor quality institutions like those in Romania, a child might have 50 caregivers, non of which they see enough to form a secure attachment
2) Intellectual Disability
When arriving in Britain, most showed signs of intellectual disabilities
Most adopted before 6 months caught up by age 4
It appears that, like emotional development, damage to intellectual development as a result of institutionalisation can be recovered before 6 months (the age of which attachments tend to form)

Question 101

Rutter’s Romanian Orphan Research Strength

Answer 101

There was different methodological strengths of Rutter’s research
It was a longitudinal study - it is still ongoing
- this helps us to see the long-term effects of institutionalisation
It used a control group of British Orphans
- this rules out simply being adoption being the cause for the developmental issues and shows that carve within institutions is important
The groups were stratified by age
- it was able to pinpoint 6 months as the ‘magic age’ for recovery and catch up
It was a natural experiment
- it is high in ecological validity

Question 102

Rutter’s Romanian Orphan Research Limitation

Answer 102

This was a natural experiment
- there are a lack on controls over the IV (within the institutions and a lack of control over EVs)
- the children were adopted the earliest showed the best recovery however children who had disabilities were often left in the institutions for longer
- parents also looked specifically for younger children and children who were sociable and showed signs of being loving
- it could be that children who were left longer didn’t recover as well because of other variables
- it could be because they were disabled and had developmental issues which could ave been the cause of remaining in the orphanages, not an affect
- potential low internal validity

Question 103

Research into Romanian Orphanages Strength

Answer 103

The research has practical applications
Romanian orphanages has helped us to understand the need for having a high quality of institutional care
Some developments that have been made are:
- Key-workers - each child has 1 or 2 consistent caregivers - allows for development of continuous bonds
- Ideal age of adoption - children should ideally be adopted as soon after birth as possihp;e

Question 104

Standards of Care in the Romanian Orphanages and Limitation of the Theory of Maternal Deprivation

Answer 104

The “care” was horrific
Orphans were horrifically physically mistreated, cognitively ignored and socially deprived
- it wasn’t just maternal deprivation
Longer term effects are due to a range of types of deprivation
We could also argue that it was privation, not deprivation
- maybe the research lacks validity and measures many types of deprivation or privation

Question 105

Relationships in Childhood - Peer Relationships (Friendships)

Answer 105

Kerns (1994) found that the attachment type of an infant is strongly associated with the quality of peer relationships as a child
Securely attached infants go on to form the ‘best quality’ childhood friendships, whereas insecurely attached infants tend to have friendship difficulties
Those who had high quality friendships may be: dependable, non-judgmental, empathetic and willing to do things for their friends
Those who had friendship difficulties may: not know how to act, be rude and break promises

Question 106

Relationships in Childhood - Bullying

Answer 106

Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) found that bullying behaviour in particular can be predicted by attachment type
They gave 196 children from London aged 7-11 a questionnaire which they used to assess both attachment type and bullying involvement
Securely attached children were found to be unlikely to be involved in bullying
Insecure-avoidant attached children were found to be the most likely to be the victim of bulling
Insecure-resistant attached children were found to be the most likely to be a bully

Question 107

Relationships in Adulthood - Friendships and Romantic Relationships

Answer 107

McCarthy (1999) studied 40 adult women who had been assessed when they were abuse to establish their early attachment type
Securely attached children were found to have the best adult friendships and romantic relationships
Insecurely-resistant children were found to have particular problems within maintaining adult friendships
Insecurely-avoidant children were found to have struggled with intimacy in adult romantic relationships

Question 108

Relationships in Adulthood - Romantic Relationship Research

Answer 108

Hazan and Shaver (1987) conducted a classic study into the association between attachment and romantic relationships as adults
They analysed 620 replies to a ‘love quiz’ printed in the local American newspaper ‘The Rocky Mountain News’
The quiz had 3 sections:
1 - assessing respondents’ current or most significant romantic relationship
2 - general love experiences - e.g. number of partners
3 - assessing attachment type by asking respondents to choose which of the three statements best described their feelings:
A) My mother treats me with respect and is accepting and not demanding. She is confident about herself
B) My mother is humours, likeable and respected by others. She treats me with respect
C) my mother treats me with respect but is sometimes cold and rejecting

Question 109

Love Quiz Findings

Answer 109

Hazan and Shaver found that 56% classified themselves as secure, 25% as avoidant and 19% as resistant
As predicted, love experience and attitudes towards love were related to attachment type
ANALYSIS:
Secure Adults
Different Love Experiences - relationships are positive
Adult Views of Relationships - trust others and believe in enduring love
Memories of Mother-Child Relationships - positive image of mothers as loving and independent
Avoidant Adults
Different Love Experiences - fearful of closeness
Adult Views of Relationships- love it not durable nor necessary for happiness
Memories of Mother-Child Relationships - remember mothers as cold and rejecting
Resistant Adults
Different Love Experiences - preoccupied by love
Adult Views of Relationships - falling in love is easy but having trouble finding true love
Memories of Mother-Child Relationships - conflicting memories of mother being positive and rejecting

Question 110

Relationships in Adulthood - Parenting Own Child

Answer 110

99 mothers and their attachment to their children was studied by Bailey (2007)
The vast majority has some attachment to their own mothers and children

Question 111

With Reference to the Internal Working Model, Briefly Explain How ALL of These Findings - Both In Childhood and Relationships in Adulthood - Can Be Explained

Answer 111

The internal working model is our template for our later relationships
A baby whose first experience is of a loving experience is a loving relationship with a reliable attachment figure will have this as a template for relationships and and will then seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them
- i.e. without being too uninvolved (associated with avoidant attachments) or controlling/argumentative (associated with resistant attachments)
Insecure children may struggle to form relationships in the first place and may behave inappropriately within them as a result of their internal working model

Question 112

Research into Later Relationships Strengths

Answer 112

Reviews of studies linking attachment to later development have concluded that early attachment does consistently predict later attachment, emotional well-being and attachment to own children
- this shows that the link between attachment and later relationships is reliable, which adds validity to the theory that early attachment influences later relationships (good predictability).
Clarke and Clarke that the influence of early attachment is probabilistic rather than deterministic, i.e. an insecure attachment does not guarantee later developmental probables, but rather increases the likelihood. But knowing someone’s early attachment status means we have an opportunity to intervene and help their development
- this shows that there are practical applications of the theory that early attachment influences later relationships e.g. relationship counselling

Question 113

Research into Later Relationships Limitations

Answer 113

Zimmerman (2000) assessed infant attachment type and adolescents (aged 16) attachment to parents. The findings indicated that there was very little relationship between quality of infant and adolescent attachment, especially when life events such as parental divorce had occurred
& The Regensburg longitudinal study followed 43 individuals from one year of age. At age 16, attachment was assessed using the adult attachment interview and there was no evidence of continuity
- these studies fail to support the existence of close links between early attachment and later development. This means it is not clear to what extent the quality of early attachment really predicts later development
Many assessments of early and current day attachments rely on the use of self-report methods as a means of categorising as a specific attachment type
- the use of self-report methods such as interviews and questionnaires does mean that there are potential problems with validity of the data gathered regarding attachment type. It relies on honesty which may be affected due to social desirability bias and relies on them having an accurate perception of their relationship. If the data gathered has accuracy issues, then we need to question the validity of any links drawn between early attachment and later development
Many assessments of early attachments are retrospective, i.e. they involve asking adults about their early lives in order to assess their attachment type as an infant
- another reason data on this topic might be inaccurate is that it can rely on memory relationships participants had with their parents and perception and memory isn’t always reliable or accurate
The research linking early attachment with later relationship experiences is correlational
rather than experimental
- we cannot establish a cause and effect relationship with correlation research. We cannot say that infant attachment type causes later relationships ‘styles’, only that the two are linked or associated in some way