Gender Flashcards
Cognitive
What is the role of biases and what are the two types of biases?
can lead to inequality, prejudice and discrimination
alpha biases - binary, encourages identification with one gender, creates a sense of abnormity
beta biases - suggests no differences between (trans) men and (trans) women, fails to recognise different needs, prevents charge
Cognitive
What were the role of schemas (gender schema theory)?
information consistent with gender schema more likely to be stored and recalled, recall of gender-inconsistent information is distorted to fit schema
Cognitive
What is the role of cognitive priming?
sex-role stereotyping and priming - gender stereotypes prime us to except certain roles and behaviour (i.e. nurse is a women because they are caring, men better at math)
gender roles and priming - e.g. women portrayed as passive on TV may influence girls to behave in same ways
Evaluation of cognitive approach.
Practical applications - Avoid alpha and beta biases in everyday life, recognise similarities and differences between all gender identities
Research support - Cold pressor test, men primed with feminine-typical behaviours reported less pain and anxiety (Fowler et al 2011)
Neglects key non-cognitive factors - Social factors crucial in early years of gender development (e.g. rewards from parents), SLT better explanation
Social
What is peer influences on gender?
Gender identity in children - most childhood name their gender by three years (Egen and Perry 2001), gender segregation begins, same-gender peers are models for gender identity, peers exert NSI (gender norms) and ISI (sources of gender information)
Gender identity in adolescence - gender typically involves comparing self with peer, judge how fit into gender categories
Social
What is conformity to gender roles?
Felt pressure for gender conformity - NSI from parents and peers, conform to gender-typical norms and not conform to atypical
Gender non-conformity - felt pressure a source of stress for adolescents with gender-atypical identity (bullying, rejection), may lead to gender dysmorphia
Social
What is the influence of culture on gender?
Culture and third genders - non-binary in some cultures, e.g. fa’afafine in Samoa, biological males but traditional women’s role
Evaluate the social approach on gender.
Research support - Gender roles strongly influenced by cultural context, e.g. women in the workplace vs traditional role of home-maker (Hofstede 2001)
Gender non-conformity - Social approach hard to explain non-conformity when NSI tends towards gender conformity, needs cognitive element
Peer influences weak - Peers affect attitudes and beliefs (felt pressure for conformity) but not identity (gender typicality, Kornienko et al 2016)
Social learning
What is operant conditioning and gender?
Reward and punishments - children rewarded for gender-typical behaviour (strengthens), punished for atypical (weakens), boys rough and active, girls passive and gentle
Differential reinforcement - girls and boys reinforced for different behaviours, driven by fathers (Kerig et al 1993)
Social learning
What is social learning and gender?
Modelling - parents model gender-typical behaviours for imitation, also media models
Vicarious reinforcement - child observes consequences, imitation if reward but not if punishment
Identification - observer perceives model as ‘like me’, so imitation more likely
Influence of media - above processes operate through media, both gender-typical and gender-atypical/fluid
Evaluate social learning behaviour on gender.
Research support - Mothers behaved differently towards baby dressed in boys or girls clothes (e.g. toy choice), differential reinforcements (Smith and Llyod 1978)
Explains changing norms - Social norms have shifted, new forms of gender behaviour more often reinforced (through media) than punished, more gender-fluid models
Children are active not passive - many children more gender-atypical than their parents, so must actively construct gender not passively receive it
Biological
What is the role of sex hormones in gender?
Testosterone - levels before and after birth linked to brain difference between men and women
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia - girls with CAH show male-typical play behaviour, small proportions want to live as men (Hines 2006)
Oestrogen -female sexual characteristics at puberty, menstrual cycle (PMS)
Oxytocin - huge amounts during childbirth, emotional bonding, reduces cortisol
Biological
What is evolutionary explanations for masculinity/ feminity?
Dominant male theory - dominant males mated more often, masculinity promoting genes survived
Division of labour in EEA - hunting men needed masculine traits, domestic women needed caring traits, promoted reproductive success
Biological
What is the role of chromosomes in gender?
Turner’s syndrome - biological females with one X, most identify, as women, little gender dysmorphia
Evaluate biological approach on gender.
Research support - High masculinity scores links to high testosterone, femininity linked to low testosterone (Baucome et al 1985)
Neglects social and cultural factors - African American girls identify with masculine and androgynies traits (Ashcraft and Belgrave 2005)
Third gender - Some cultures have a third gender, e.g. fa’afafine of Samoa, biologically male but live as women, culturally-accepted gender fluidity challenges binary view
