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Y13 Psychology > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

1
Q

What is meant by sex of a person?

A

Sex = biological fact of being a male or female - determined by chromosomes XX/XY

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2
Q

What is meant by genotype?

A

Genotype - genetic makeup

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3
Q

What is gender?

A

Gender = the way in which sex and societal norms interact to create attitudes, behaviours and personalities demanded appropiate for each sex

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4
Q

What is gender itentity?

A

Gender identity = how individuals classify themselves and create their sense of self around this classification

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5
Q

What is meant by transgender?

A

Transgender = people who feel they are born in the wrong sex, and so identify more with the opposite sex

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6
Q

What is a gender role?

A

Gender role = people conforming to their gender identity by behaving in a ‘gender-appropiate’ manner based on societal expectations

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7
Q

What is a sex-role sterotype?

A

Sex-role stereotype = A clear distinction between how females should act to be ‘feminine’ and how males should act to be ‘masculine’

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8
Q

What is androgeny?

A

Androgeny - when an individual has a balance of both masculine and feminine traits and cannot be categorised as purely feminine or masculing -> not conformed to gender roles

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9
Q

Who is Bem?

A

Bem - she believed androgenous people are at an advantage as they can more easily adapt to situations - she said ‘epitome of psychological health’

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10
Q

How to measure androgeny?

A

Androgeny is measured using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) - 60 question self-report test, 3 groups (masculine adjectives, feminine adjectives, neutral adjectives) 20 adjectives per group, rank 1-7 each adjective on degree of applicability - T test then used after to assess

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11
Q

BSRI (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) evaluation

A

BSRI (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) Evaluation:
+ = Neutral words take away demand characteristics as parts less aware of words being just masc or just fem - 10 socially desirable adj and 10 not socially desirable adj
- = culturally biased -> based on American standards -> eg agression may be positive masc trait in america but not in Bhutan (+ = cultural variations can be made)
- = possible outdated (made in 70s -> cultural expectations change)
+ = adjectives selected by variety of judges

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12
Q

Female-Determining Gene

A

Female chromosomes = XX -> female determining gene on the X chromosome means that female embryos will produce lots of oestrogen thus triggering the development of the female reproductive system

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13
Q

SRY (sex-determining region Y)

A

SRY on the Y chromsome triggers the creation of testes and the male reproductive system, inhibiting female anatomical structures developing in males

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14
Q

Male sex hormones

A

Male sex hormones = androgens - most important is testosterone

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15
Q

Female sex hormones

A

Main female sex hormone is oestrogen

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16
Q

Effect of puberty on males

A

Puberty on males -> surge in testosterone levels = androgenic effects (growth of testes and penis) and anabolic effects (increased muscle strength and size)

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17
Q

Effect of puberty on females

A

Effect of puberty on females = pestrpgen -> menstrucation begins as ovaries secret oesterogen leading to release of eggs - also maintains bone health - problem later in life when oestrogen drops during menopause

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18
Q

Oxytocin

A

Oxytocin - hormone found in both males and females - significant for females in childbirth and breastfeeding - assists womb contractions during labor, widening cervix and vagina for baby to be born
-Can also be used as medication to speed childbirth and prevent excessive bleeding after
-Also called ‘love hormone’ when humans hugs etc oxytocin releases = helps new mothers bond with baby after birth

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19
Q

Evaluation of role of chromomes + hormones in gender

A

Evaluation of role of chromomes + hormones in gender:
- = higher levels of testosterone during foetal development can results in high impulsivity
+ = research has meant investigating into link between testosterone and autism - shows importance of hormones in the womb
- = biological explanation simplistic/reductionist - environment is powerful in gender determination

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20
Q

Aim of Rubin’s gender role expereiment

A

Aim of Rubin’s gender role expereiment:
To find out if new parents stereotype their babies

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21
Q

Method of Rubin’s gender experiment

A

Method of Rubin’s gender experiment:
Parents asked to describe their newborns within 24hrs of their birth

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22
Q

Findings of Rubin’s gender experiment

A

Findings of Rubin’s experiments:
Boys described as alert and strong, girls described as soft and delicate

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23
Q

Conclusion of Rubin’s gender experiment?

A

Conclusion of Rubin’s gender experiment: stereotyping occurs, occurs both before and after birth once knowing the sex of their baby

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24
Q

Macoby and Jacklin meta analysis study

A

Macoby and Jacklin conducted a meta analysis of 1500+ gender studies:
Found four significant differences
- girls had greater verbal ability
- boys greater visual and spatial abilities
- boys greater arithmetic abilities
- boys more agressive

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25
Q

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

Klinefelters syndrome:
-XXY chromosomes
-Affects males
-Small genitalia, reduced fertility, breasts, reduced body hsir
-Social abnormalities

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26
Q

What is Turner Syndrome?

A

Turner Syndrome:
-X Chromosome (lack of another X)
-Affects females
-Amenorrhea (loss of menstruation), infertility, webbed neck
-Difficulty in socialisation, spatial awareness and maths difficulties

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27
Q

Atpyical sex chromosome patterns

A

Atpyical sex chromosome patterns :
+ = Practical application -> means that effective treatment implemented when young
+ = hormonal therapy
+ = supports nature argument -> biological basis of psychology
- = Environmental explanations -> social immaturity may be as a result of how they are treated due to the chromosome syndromes

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28
Q

The cognitive explanation of gender development

A

The cognitive explanation of gender development focuses on how a child’s thinking changes as they get older
-Changes are universal (consequence of maturation)

29
Q

Kholberg’s theory

A

Kholberg’s theory:
-Cognitive-development theory in the 1960’s
-Believed children went through three stages, becoming more xomplex
-Stages = gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy

30
Q

What were the three stages of gender development according to Kholberg’s theory?

A

The three stages of gender development according to Kholberg’s theory:
-Gender identitiy (2-3yrs)
-Gender stability (4-5 yrs)
-Gender constancy (6-7+yrs)

31
Q

Gender Identity stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory)

A

Gender Identity stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory):
-2-3 yrs
-Child recognises that they are boy or girl
-They believe they can change (ie boy saying they want to be a mom)

32
Q

Gender stability as the second stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory)

A

Gender stability as the second stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory):
-4-5yrs
-Child realises gender is fixed and stable over time
-Their understanding of gender is heavily influenced by external factors eg clothes

33
Q

Gender Constancy as the third stage of gender development

A

Gender Constancy as the third stage of gender development:
-6-7yrs+
-Child understands that gender is stable but also consistent over time and situations (eg men can have long hair, girls can play rugby)

34
Q

Munroe’s research into Kholberg’s theory

A

Munroe’s research into Kholberg’s theory:
-Munroe studied children across cultures
-Found children followed the stages of gender development
-Meaning it is biologically driven and not down to cultural and social norms

35
Q

Slaby and Frey’s study on the accuracy of Kholberg’s theory

A

Slaby and Frey’s study on the accuracy of Kholberg’s theory:
-Interviewd 55 children 2-5 yrs old
-First phase = Asked questions for each stage (Identity = which one are you? in ref to a girl or boy image) (Stability = will you be a mum or dad?) (Constancy = if you wore -opposite sex clothes- are u girl or boy?)
-Second phase = Showed films with both male and female models

36
Q

Slaby and Frey’s study on Kholberg theory stages - findings

A

Slaby and Frey’s study on Kholberg theory stages - findings:
-Children high gender constancy = greater tendency to watch same-sex model than those with lower gender constancy

37
Q

Kholberg’s theory evaluation

A

Kholberg’s theory evaluation:
+ = Slaby and Frey supporting research -> findings align with Kholberg
- = Slaby and Frey -> artificial situation, based on interviews which can cause researcher bias
- = Gender schema theory contradicts Kholberg -> children younger than 6 can form same-sex role models
+ = Gives agency to child -> active process -> free will, as they actively seek role models -> less deterministic

38
Q

What is the gender schema theory?

A

Gender schema theory:
-Martine and Halverson suggested that children play a more active role in their gender development from an earlier age
-Helps children make sense on how to behave at a young age (contradicts Kholberg)

39
Q

In-group and out-group schemas

A

-In-group schemas = children’s enhanced interest in their gender
-Out-group schemas= less interest outside their own gender
-These are the first schemas children develop

40
Q

Martin and Halveson’s research into gender schemas

A

Martin and Halveson’s research into gender schemas:
-Asked 5&6 year olds to look at children playing -> some schema-consistent and some schema-inconsistent
-After a week, answers were switched showing children build their schemas as this is what memories are based on

41
Q

Gender Schema Theory Evaluation

A

Gender Schema Theory Evaluation:
+ = Supports SLT that children learn by observation -> GST also built on information processing theory (children select information to be remembered)
- = Simplistic -> focuses on child as individual -> ignores social norms and culture importance

42
Q

Freud’s oedipus complex relation to gender development

A

Freud’s oedipus complex relation to gender development:
-Occurs in phallic stage
-Boy desires person who nurtures him (mother) + fears father due to castration anxiety
-Oedipus complex resolved by finding common ground with father and marry lady like mother -> leads to solid masculine gender identity alike his father

43
Q

Freud’s electra Complex in relation to Gender Development

A

-Girls libido aimed towards father -> Penis Envy -> Unconscious thinking -> Wants to be centre of father’s attention as well as strong desire to be like him -> Complexities in electra complex means female gender identity is more ambivalent than male gender identity -> less focused and secure in its orientation

44
Q

Resolving oedipus and electra complex

A

-Electra and Oedipus complex resolved through identification with the same-sex parent
-Results in acquisition of supergo and gender itentity
-Freud believed identification to be the most important role in gender stereotypes
-Leads to internalisation

45
Q

Assumptions of the social learning approach

A

Assumptions of the social learning approach:
-behaviour is learnt by observation and imitation
-environmental determinism
-higher levels of explanation
-role of models -> vicarious reinforcement

46
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Positive reinforcement = strengthens behaviour because it is rewarding to the learner

47
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Negative reinforcement = weakens behaviour as it stops an unpleasant experience

48
Q

What is self-efficacy

A

Self-efficiacy = needs to be the belief that the person is capable of imitating behaviour and they identify with the role model

49
Q

How does gender develop in accordance to the SLT?

A

-Identification -> quality/characteristic that the person wants to imitate as seen in the role model

50
Q

What are the mediational processes in the SLT?

A

Mediational processes:
-Attention
-Retention
-Reproduction
-Motivation

51
Q

Process of gender development in SLT

A

Process of gender development in SLT:
-Behaviour is observed
-Behaviour imitated
-Behaviour reinforced
-Behaviour repeated
-Behaviour internalised

52
Q

Evaluation of the SLT approach in explaining gender development

A

Evaluation of the SLT approach in explaining gender development:
- = ignores role of biology -> eg Macoby found hormones may be more important
+ = study evidence = Rubin -> parents stereotypes newborns
- = temporal validity -> gender roles change
- = emphasis on same-sex role model -> single-parent households

53
Q

Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study

A

Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study:
Margaret Mead (1935) conducted a classic study of cultural differences in Papua New Guinea. She examined three different tribes and found the Arapesh men and women to be gentle, responsive and cooperative; the Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power and position; and the Tchambuli showed the opposite gender-role behaviours to those seen in most cultures, as the women were dominant, impersonal and managerial and the men were more emotionally dependen

54
Q

Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study findings in New Guinea

A

Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study findings in New Guinea:
Mead found the Arapesh men and women to be gentle, responsive and cooperative; the Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power and position; and the Tchambuli showed the opposite gender-role behaviours to those seen in most cultures, as the women were dominant, impersonal and managerial and the men were more emotionally dependent

55
Q

Impact of culture on gender - Evaluation

A

Impact of culture on gender - Evaluation:
- = Ignores role of biology -> hormones override social norms?
+ = Mead’s work was groundbreaking is distinguishin sex and gender roles
- = Mead’s reliability questioned -> people has been unable to replicate the results -> did she manipulate the study?

56
Q

Influence of media on gender roles

A

Influence of media on gender roles:
-Children internalise gender role stereotypes from books, songs, movies etc -> stereotypes are exaggerated representations of groups of people

57
Q

Williams study on the influence of media on gender roles

A

Williams study on the influence of media on gender roles:
-Research in Canada - introduced TV to people with no TV previously and compared with people who already had TV’s
-Participants changed gender attitude in align with traditional gender stereotypes portrayed on TV

58
Q

Influence of media on gender roles - Evaluation

A

Influence of media on gender roles - Evaluation
- = Correlational research - Williams study ->cannot infer causation
- = Hard to distinguish wether media is effecting gender roles or its something else

59
Q

What is atypical gender development?

A

Atypical gender development is when an indiviual may feel that their gender identity is not congruent with the sex assigned at birth
-Transgender
-Can cause confusion and dicomfort called gender dysphoria (GD), formerly known as gender identity disorder (GID)

60
Q

Criteria for someone to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria (according to the DSM-V)

A

Gender dyphoria criteria:
-Marked difference between the individual’s expressed/experienced gender, and the gender others would assign them, and it must continue for at least six months

61
Q

Area of the brain that affects transgender individuals

A

Transgender individuals have an area of the hypothalamus (the BTSc) with the structure/size of the gender they identify with, and not the sex they were born as
-This was developed by Zhou and Kruijver

62
Q

Hare’s study into the biological basis of transgender individuals

A

Hare’s study into the biological basis of transgender individuals:
-Analysis of MTF transsexuals and non-transsexual males
-Found a significant association between transsexualism and the AR allele (androgen receptor gene)
-Transsexuals have longer AR repeat lengths, causing a reduced action of tostesterone

63
Q

Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Trauma

A

Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Trauma:
-Researched by Susan Coates
-Condition is brought about due to trauma at a young age

64
Q

Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Psychodynamic

A

Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Psychodynamic:
-Researched by Robert Stoller
-Family relationships is important
-Boys have close relationship to mothers, girls have depressed mothers and unsupportive father
-Resonates with oedipus and electra complexes

65
Q

Social explanations for gender dyphoria / GID - comorbidity

A

Social explanations for gender dyphoria / GID - comorbidity:
-Coates
-Found children with GD also have seperation anxiety, depression, emotional and behavioural difficultires

66
Q

Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria /GID - Evaluation

A

Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria /GID - Evaluation:
+ = Hare’s study into transexualism -> importance of AR allele -> biological important
- = Samples used in GD studies limited due to only affecting small amount of population -> hard to generalise
- = Hard to seperate nature and nurture impact
- = Reductionist -> interactionist view may be more important

67
Q

How does identification with the father develop in the oediupus complex? (Psychodynamic approach to gender)

A

Identification with father in oediupus complex:
1 - Infant Labido (sexual feelings for mother)
2 - Worry about father’s anger (fear of castration - this is a conflict for ego to resolve)
3 - Resolution of conflict is the identification with the father -> leads to normal gender development

68
Q

How does identification with the mother develop in the electra complex? Psychodynamic approach to gender)

A

Identifcation with mother in electra complex:
1 - Infantile labido (sexual feelings for father)
2 - Penis envy (desire to have a penis), hatred for mother (due to being a love rival + history of mothers castrating)
3 - Resolution of conflict (penis envy) is the acceptance of a lack of penis and identification with the mother, leading to a desire to have children similarly

69
Q

Gender Schema Theory (GST) Evaluation

A

Gender Schema Theory (GST) evaluation:
- = Opposes Kholberg’s gender constancy stage as GST claims 2+ year olds have gender-seeking behaviour -> unclear which theory is correct
- = Martin’s research -> Socially sensitive -> Guilt and anxiety on same-sex + single-parent households -> cost-benefit analysis
- = Martin’s study -> researcher bias as its his theory
+ = Agrees with SLT information processing theory -> active seeking + schemas -> theory progression
- = Simplistic + Reductionist -> ignores social norms and cultural groups
+ = Practical application -> challenges sexism -> by changing what people see in media

Y13 Psychology (9 decks)

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