Gender Flashcards
What is meant by sex of a person?
Sex = biological fact of being a male or female - determined by chromosomes XX/XY
What is meant by genotype?
Genotype - genetic makeup
What is gender?
Gender = the way in which sex and societal norms interact to create attitudes, behaviours and personalities demanded appropiate for each sex
What is gender itentity?
Gender identity = how individuals classify themselves and create their sense of self around this classification
What is meant by transgender?
Transgender = people who feel they are born in the wrong sex, and so identify more with the opposite sex
What is a gender role?
Gender role = people conforming to their gender identity by behaving in a ‘gender-appropiate’ manner based on societal expectations
What is a sex-role sterotype?
Sex-role stereotype = A clear distinction between how females should act to be ‘feminine’ and how males should act to be ‘masculine’
What is androgeny?
Androgeny - when an individual has a balance of both masculine and feminine traits and cannot be categorised as purely feminine or masculing -> not conformed to gender roles
Who is Bem?
Bem - she believed androgenous people are at an advantage as they can more easily adapt to situations - she said ‘epitome of psychological health’
How to measure androgeny?
Androgeny is measured using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) - 60 question self-report test, 3 groups (masculine adjectives, feminine adjectives, neutral adjectives) 20 adjectives per group, rank 1-7 each adjective on degree of applicability - T test then used after to assess
BSRI (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) evaluation
BSRI (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) Evaluation:
+ = Neutral words take away demand characteristics as parts less aware of words being just masc or just fem - 10 socially desirable adj and 10 not socially desirable adj
- = culturally biased -> based on American standards -> eg agression may be positive masc trait in america but not in Bhutan (+ = cultural variations can be made)
- = possible outdated (made in 70s -> cultural expectations change)
+ = adjectives selected by variety of judges
Female-Determining Gene
Female chromosomes = XX -> female determining gene on the X chromosome means that female embryos will produce lots of oestrogen thus triggering the development of the female reproductive system
SRY (sex-determining region Y)
SRY on the Y chromsome triggers the creation of testes and the male reproductive system, inhibiting female anatomical structures developing in males
Male sex hormones
Male sex hormones = androgens - most important is testosterone
Female sex hormones
Main female sex hormone is oestrogen
Effect of puberty on males
Puberty on males -> surge in testosterone levels = androgenic effects (growth of testes and penis) and anabolic effects (increased muscle strength and size)
Effect of puberty on females
Effect of puberty on females = pestrpgen -> menstrucation begins as ovaries secret oesterogen leading to release of eggs - also maintains bone health - problem later in life when oestrogen drops during menopause
Oxytocin
Oxytocin - hormone found in both males and females - significant for females in childbirth and breastfeeding - assists womb contractions during labor, widening cervix and vagina for baby to be born
-Can also be used as medication to speed childbirth and prevent excessive bleeding after
-Also called ‘love hormone’ when humans hugs etc oxytocin releases = helps new mothers bond with baby after birth
Evaluation of role of chromomes + hormones in gender
Evaluation of role of chromomes + hormones in gender:
- = higher levels of testosterone during foetal development can results in high impulsivity
+ = research has meant investigating into link between testosterone and autism - shows importance of hormones in the womb
- = biological explanation simplistic/reductionist - environment is powerful in gender determination
Aim of Rubin’s gender role expereiment
Aim of Rubin’s gender role expereiment:
To find out if new parents stereotype their babies
Method of Rubin’s gender experiment
Method of Rubin’s gender experiment:
Parents asked to describe their newborns within 24hrs of their birth
Findings of Rubin’s gender experiment
Findings of Rubin’s experiments:
Boys described as alert and strong, girls described as soft and delicate
Conclusion of Rubin’s gender experiment?
Conclusion of Rubin’s gender experiment: stereotyping occurs, occurs both before and after birth once knowing the sex of their baby
Macoby and Jacklin meta analysis study
Macoby and Jacklin conducted a meta analysis of 1500+ gender studies:
Found four significant differences
- girls had greater verbal ability
- boys greater visual and spatial abilities
- boys greater arithmetic abilities
- boys more agressive
What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?
Klinefelters syndrome:
-XXY chromosomes
-Affects males
-Small genitalia, reduced fertility, breasts, reduced body hsir
-Social abnormalities
What is Turner Syndrome?
Turner Syndrome:
-X Chromosome (lack of another X)
-Affects females
-Amenorrhea (loss of menstruation), infertility, webbed neck
-Difficulty in socialisation, spatial awareness and maths difficulties
Atpyical sex chromosome patterns
Atpyical sex chromosome patterns :
+ = Practical application -> means that effective treatment implemented when young
+ = hormonal therapy
+ = supports nature argument -> biological basis of psychology
- = Environmental explanations -> social immaturity may be as a result of how they are treated due to the chromosome syndromes
The cognitive explanation of gender development
The cognitive explanation of gender development focuses on how a child’s thinking changes as they get older
-Changes are universal (consequence of maturation)
Kholberg’s theory
Kholberg’s theory:
-Cognitive-development theory in the 1960’s
-Believed children went through three stages, becoming more xomplex
-Stages = gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy
What were the three stages of gender development according to Kholberg’s theory?
The three stages of gender development according to Kholberg’s theory:
-Gender identitiy (2-3yrs)
-Gender stability (4-5 yrs)
-Gender constancy (6-7+yrs)
Gender Identity stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory)
Gender Identity stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory):
-2-3 yrs
-Child recognises that they are boy or girl
-They believe they can change (ie boy saying they want to be a mom)
Gender stability as the second stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory)
Gender stability as the second stage of gender development (Kholberg’s theory):
-4-5yrs
-Child realises gender is fixed and stable over time
-Their understanding of gender is heavily influenced by external factors eg clothes
Gender Constancy as the third stage of gender development
Gender Constancy as the third stage of gender development:
-6-7yrs+
-Child understands that gender is stable but also consistent over time and situations (eg men can have long hair, girls can play rugby)
Munroe’s research into Kholberg’s theory
Munroe’s research into Kholberg’s theory:
-Munroe studied children across cultures
-Found children followed the stages of gender development
-Meaning it is biologically driven and not down to cultural and social norms
Slaby and Frey’s study on the accuracy of Kholberg’s theory
Slaby and Frey’s study on the accuracy of Kholberg’s theory:
-Interviewd 55 children 2-5 yrs old
-First phase = Asked questions for each stage (Identity = which one are you? in ref to a girl or boy image) (Stability = will you be a mum or dad?) (Constancy = if you wore -opposite sex clothes- are u girl or boy?)
-Second phase = Showed films with both male and female models
Slaby and Frey’s study on Kholberg theory stages - findings
Slaby and Frey’s study on Kholberg theory stages - findings:
-Children high gender constancy = greater tendency to watch same-sex model than those with lower gender constancy
Kholberg’s theory evaluation
Kholberg’s theory evaluation:
+ = Slaby and Frey supporting research -> findings align with Kholberg
- = Slaby and Frey -> artificial situation, based on interviews which can cause researcher bias
- = Gender schema theory contradicts Kholberg -> children younger than 6 can form same-sex role models
+ = Gives agency to child -> active process -> free will, as they actively seek role models -> less deterministic
What is the gender schema theory?
Gender schema theory:
-Martine and Halverson suggested that children play a more active role in their gender development from an earlier age
-Helps children make sense on how to behave at a young age (contradicts Kholberg)
In-group and out-group schemas
-In-group schemas = children’s enhanced interest in their gender
-Out-group schemas= less interest outside their own gender
-These are the first schemas children develop
Martin and Halveson’s research into gender schemas
Martin and Halveson’s research into gender schemas:
-Asked 5&6 year olds to look at children playing -> some schema-consistent and some schema-inconsistent
-After a week, answers were switched showing children build their schemas as this is what memories are based on
Gender Schema Theory Evaluation
Gender Schema Theory Evaluation:
+ = Supports SLT that children learn by observation -> GST also built on information processing theory (children select information to be remembered)
- = Simplistic -> focuses on child as individual -> ignores social norms and culture importance
Freud’s oedipus complex relation to gender development
Freud’s oedipus complex relation to gender development:
-Occurs in phallic stage
-Boy desires person who nurtures him (mother) + fears father due to castration anxiety
-Oedipus complex resolved by finding common ground with father and marry lady like mother -> leads to solid masculine gender identity alike his father
Freud’s electra Complex in relation to Gender Development
-Girls libido aimed towards father -> Penis Envy -> Unconscious thinking -> Wants to be centre of father’s attention as well as strong desire to be like him -> Complexities in electra complex means female gender identity is more ambivalent than male gender identity -> less focused and secure in its orientation
Resolving oedipus and electra complex
-Electra and Oedipus complex resolved through identification with the same-sex parent
-Results in acquisition of supergo and gender itentity
-Freud believed identification to be the most important role in gender stereotypes
-Leads to internalisation
Assumptions of the social learning approach
Assumptions of the social learning approach:
-behaviour is learnt by observation and imitation
-environmental determinism
-higher levels of explanation
-role of models -> vicarious reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement = strengthens behaviour because it is rewarding to the learner
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement = weakens behaviour as it stops an unpleasant experience
What is self-efficacy
Self-efficiacy = needs to be the belief that the person is capable of imitating behaviour and they identify with the role model
How does gender develop in accordance to the SLT?
-Identification -> quality/characteristic that the person wants to imitate as seen in the role model
What are the mediational processes in the SLT?
Mediational processes:
-Attention
-Retention
-Reproduction
-Motivation
Process of gender development in SLT
Process of gender development in SLT:
-Behaviour is observed
-Behaviour imitated
-Behaviour reinforced
-Behaviour repeated
-Behaviour internalised
Evaluation of the SLT approach in explaining gender development
Evaluation of the SLT approach in explaining gender development:
- = ignores role of biology -> eg Macoby found hormones may be more important
+ = study evidence = Rubin -> parents stereotypes newborns
- = temporal validity -> gender roles change
- = emphasis on same-sex role model -> single-parent households
Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study
Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study:
Margaret Mead (1935) conducted a classic study of cultural differences in Papua New Guinea. She examined three different tribes and found the Arapesh men and women to be gentle, responsive and cooperative; the Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power and position; and the Tchambuli showed the opposite gender-role behaviours to those seen in most cultures, as the women were dominant, impersonal and managerial and the men were more emotionally dependen
Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study findings in New Guinea
Margaret Mead Cultural Differences study findings in New Guinea:
Mead found the Arapesh men and women to be gentle, responsive and cooperative; the Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power and position; and the Tchambuli showed the opposite gender-role behaviours to those seen in most cultures, as the women were dominant, impersonal and managerial and the men were more emotionally dependent
Impact of culture on gender - Evaluation
Impact of culture on gender - Evaluation:
- = Ignores role of biology -> hormones override social norms?
+ = Mead’s work was groundbreaking is distinguishin sex and gender roles
- = Mead’s reliability questioned -> people has been unable to replicate the results -> did she manipulate the study?
Influence of media on gender roles
Influence of media on gender roles:
-Children internalise gender role stereotypes from books, songs, movies etc -> stereotypes are exaggerated representations of groups of people
Williams study on the influence of media on gender roles
Williams study on the influence of media on gender roles:
-Research in Canada - introduced TV to people with no TV previously and compared with people who already had TV’s
-Participants changed gender attitude in align with traditional gender stereotypes portrayed on TV
Influence of media on gender roles - Evaluation
Influence of media on gender roles - Evaluation
- = Correlational research - Williams study ->cannot infer causation
- = Hard to distinguish wether media is effecting gender roles or its something else
What is atypical gender development?
Atypical gender development is when an indiviual may feel that their gender identity is not congruent with the sex assigned at birth
-Transgender
-Can cause confusion and dicomfort called gender dysphoria (GD), formerly known as gender identity disorder (GID)
Criteria for someone to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria (according to the DSM-V)
Gender dyphoria criteria:
-Marked difference between the individual’s expressed/experienced gender, and the gender others would assign them, and it must continue for at least six months
Area of the brain that affects transgender individuals
Transgender individuals have an area of the hypothalamus (the BTSc) with the structure/size of the gender they identify with, and not the sex they were born as
-This was developed by Zhou and Kruijver
Hare’s study into the biological basis of transgender individuals
Hare’s study into the biological basis of transgender individuals:
-Analysis of MTF transsexuals and non-transsexual males
-Found a significant association between transsexualism and the AR allele (androgen receptor gene)
-Transsexuals have longer AR repeat lengths, causing a reduced action of tostesterone
Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Trauma
Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Trauma:
-Researched by Susan Coates
-Condition is brought about due to trauma at a young age
Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Psychodynamic
Social explanations for gender dysphoria / GID - Psychodynamic:
-Researched by Robert Stoller
-Family relationships is important
-Boys have close relationship to mothers, girls have depressed mothers and unsupportive father
-Resonates with oedipus and electra complexes
Social explanations for gender dyphoria / GID - comorbidity
Social explanations for gender dyphoria / GID - comorbidity:
-Coates
-Found children with GD also have seperation anxiety, depression, emotional and behavioural difficultires
Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria /GID - Evaluation
Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria /GID - Evaluation:
+ = Hare’s study into transexualism -> importance of AR allele -> biological important
- = Samples used in GD studies limited due to only affecting small amount of population -> hard to generalise
- = Hard to seperate nature and nurture impact
- = Reductionist -> interactionist view may be more important
How does identification with the father develop in the oediupus complex? (Psychodynamic approach to gender)
Identification with father in oediupus complex:
1 - Infant Labido (sexual feelings for mother)
2 - Worry about father’s anger (fear of castration - this is a conflict for ego to resolve)
3 - Resolution of conflict is the identification with the father -> leads to normal gender development
How does identification with the mother develop in the electra complex? Psychodynamic approach to gender)
Identifcation with mother in electra complex:
1 - Infantile labido (sexual feelings for father)
2 - Penis envy (desire to have a penis), hatred for mother (due to being a love rival + history of mothers castrating)
3 - Resolution of conflict (penis envy) is the acceptance of a lack of penis and identification with the mother, leading to a desire to have children similarly
Gender Schema Theory (GST) Evaluation
Gender Schema Theory (GST) evaluation:
- = Opposes Kholberg’s gender constancy stage as GST claims 2+ year olds have gender-seeking behaviour -> unclear which theory is correct
- = Martin’s research -> Socially sensitive -> Guilt and anxiety on same-sex + single-parent households -> cost-benefit analysis
- = Martin’s study -> researcher bias as its his theory
+ = Agrees with SLT information processing theory -> active seeking + schemas -> theory progression
- = Simplistic + Reductionist -> ignores social norms and cultural groups
+ = Practical application -> challenges sexism -> by changing what people see in media
