Forensic Psychology Flashcards
What is offender profiling?
Offender Profiling is a behavioural and analytical tool that helps investigators predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offenders
What are the two types of offender profiles?
Two types of offender profiles:
-Top-Down
-Bottom-Up
What is top-down profiling?
Top-Down Profiling:
-American Approach (adopted by the FBI)
-Creates a profile of an offender that allows us to predict the type of offender that commited the crime
-Organised or Disorganised offenders
What is top-down profiling based on?
Top-Down profiling is based on data gathered from interviews with 36 sexually-motivated killlers, such as Ted Bundy
What are the characteristics of an organised offender?
Characteristics of an organised offender:
-Shows evidence of planning
-Victim is deliberately targeted
-Maintains high level of control - leaves little amounts of evidence
-Above average intelligence and stable career
-Often married and with children
What are the characteristics of a disorganised offender?
Disorganised offender:
-Spontaneous offences
-Weapon and body usually left at scene - little control
-Lower than average IQ
-Unskilled employment
-Failed relationships, lives alone
-Residence tends to be close to the crime scene
How to construct an FBI profile?
Constructing an FBI profile:
1). Data assimilation (evidence is reviewed)
2). Crime scene classification (organised/disorganised)
3). Crime reconstruction
4). Profile generation
Top-Down approach to offender profiling evaluation
Top-Down approach to offender profiling evaluation:
- = Reductionist -> classification system too simplistic -> offenders may overlap
- = Simplistic -> applies to particular crimes -> based on sexually-motivated offences
- = Temporal validity low -> based on an outdated model
+ = Research support -> Caner’s metal analysis
+ = Real-world application -> Arthur Shawcross profiled enough that he was found at the crime scene -> however it is idiographic
What is the bototm-up approach to offender profiling?
Bottom-up approach to offender profiling:
-Generates a picture of the offender through systematic analysis of the evidence at the crime scene
->British model
-Does not begin with fixed topologies
Types of bottom-up profiling
Types of bottom-up profiling:
-Investigative psychology
-Geographical mapping
What is investigative psychology?
Investigative psychology:
-Aims to establish patterns of offending behaviour likely to happen
-Helps develop the statistical database
Assumptions of investigate psychology
Assumptions of investigate psychology:
-Interpersonal coherence (consistency between the way offenders interact with their victims)
-Time and place (time and location communicate
-Criminal characteristics (characteristics about the offender helps classify them)
What is geographical profiling?
Geographical profiling -> known as crime mapping -> uses location of crime to infer residence
-Canter’s circle theory: idea that serial offenders restricts offences to where they are familiar - forms circle around home base
-Marauder / Commuter
What is the marauder as stated by Canter?
The marauder - operates in close proximity to their home base
What is the commuter as stated by Canter?
The commuter = who is likely to have travelled a distance form their home base to commit their crimes
Bottom-Up approach to offender profiling evaluation
Bottom-Up approach to offender profiling evaluation:
+ = Scientific and empirical measurement of crime -> makes use of statistical analysis -> objective
+ = Research Support (Canter)
- = Unsucessful utilisation -> Copson -> only 3% of cases led to the correct identification of an offender
Canter’s meta-analysis study
Canter’s meta-analysis study:
-Analysis of 66 sexual assault cases
-Examined data using smallest space analysis
-Behaviours were found common across offences -> ‘case linkage’
Outline the historical approach to forensic psychology
Historical approach:
-Biological basis to behaviour - innate tendencies determined by genes
-Developed by Lombroso (1876)
What were the characteristics proposed by Lombroso for criminal behaviour?
Characteristics proposed by Lombroso for criminal behaviour:
-Narrow, sloping brow
-Prominent jaw
-High cheekbones
-Facial asymmetry
-Dark skin
-Physical irregularities (ie extra toes/fingers)
Lambroso’s research
Lambroso’s research:
-Studied heads and faces of convicts in Native Italy
-Used 383 dead and 3839 living criminals
-40% accounted for by atavistic characteristics
Lambroso’s research evaluation
Lambroso’s research evaluation:
- = Racial stereotypes -> Atavistic features mostly included African descent - = Contradictory research -> Goring compared criminals with non-criminals and found no particular characteristics
- = Lack of control group -> didn’t control confounding variables ie psychological disorders
+ = Contribution to criminology -> introduced the scientific approach
The genetic explanation of criminal behaviours
The genetic explanation of criminal behaviours:
-Suggests particular genes are involved
-Candidate genes
-Diathesis-Stress modeo
Lange’s twin study for the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour
Lange’s twin study for the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour:
-Found that most of the MZ and DZ twins had a co-twin also in prison
The involvement of candidate genes in criminal behaviour
The involvement of candidate genes in criminal behaviour:
-The MAOA gene (linked to dopamin and serotonin and agressive behaviour) and CDH13 gene (ADD) associated with violent crimes
The diathesis-stress model in the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour
The diathesis-stress model in the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour:
-Genetic bases of behaviour -> environmental trigger ie traumatic/dysfunctional childhood caused criminal behaviour
Neural explanation of criminal behaviour
Neural explanation of criminal behaviour:
-How the structure and workings of the brain may be linked with criminal behaviour
-Antisocial personality disorder (APD) -> neural explanation -> lack of empathy
-Associated with the prefrontal cortex
Raine’s research findings into the association of the prefrontal cortex and antisocial behaviours
Raine’s research findings into the association of the prefrontal cortex and antisocial behaviours:
-Brain imaging studies
-Individuals with APD had reduced prefrontal cortex activity -> 11% less brain matter than control group
Role of the prefrontal cortex
The prefrontal cortex includes regulation of emotional behaviour
->Dysfunction in this area leads to a dysfunction in emotional response
Keyser’s mirror neurones study
Keyser’s mirror neurones study:
-When criminals were asked to empathise with someone on film experiencing pain -> empathy controlled by mirror neurones activated -> suggests those with APD are capable of empathy but it is a process that can be switched on or off
Evaluation of the genetic and neural approach to criminal behaviour
Evaluation of the genetic and neural approach to criminal behaviour:
- = Methodological issues -> Lange’s Twin study -> poorly controlled (based on looks not DNA testing) -> concordance rate also not 100%
- = Biologically reductionist
- = Biologically Deterministic -> moral issue -> criminal justice system
+ = Research support Mednick
What was Eysenck’s psychological theory on criminal behaviour?
Eysenck proposed criminal behaviour is due to innate personality traits, and is measured across three dimensions
Eysenck’s criminal behaviour theory dimensions of personality
Eysenck criminal behaviour theory dimensions of personality:
-Introversion-Extroversion
-Narcotic-Stable
-Psychotic-Sociable
-Criminals would rate high on extroversion, narcotic and psychotic
Why are criminals typically extroverted (Eysenck’s theory)
Extroversion ->
-Underactive Nervous System
-Lacks excitement
-Don’t learn from mistakes
Why are criminals typically narcotic? (Eysencks theory)
Narcotic:
->High levels of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system
-Nervous and unstable
Why are criminals typically psychotic (Eyesenck’s theory)?
Psychotic:
->High tostesterone
-Agressive behaviour
How is criminal personality measured? (Eyesenck)
Criminal personality measurement = Eyesenck Personality Inventory -> measures where on the dimensions a person is
What leads to criminal personality according to Eysenck?
Criminal personality:
-Social Immaturity
-Concerned with instant gratification due to a lack of socialisation (where people are taught to delay gratification)
Eysenck’s criminal personality theory evaluation
Eysenck’s criminal personality theory evaluation:
+ = supporting evidence -> Eysenck found criminals score highly on E,N,P dimensions than control group -> reduced reliability
- = A meta-analysis contradicted Eysenck;s research as criminals were not found to score high across dimensions
- = Suggests one type of criminal with same personality type -> reductionist as ignores other causing factors eg environment
- = Mismeasurement of personality -> hard to quantify personality -> personality can be adopted to situiation nd not fixed
- = Culturally biased
What is Kholberg;s different levels of moral reasoning?
Kholberg’s level of moral reasoning:
-Determining wether an action is right of wring
-investigated by presenting them with imagined moral dilemmas
-Basic level = rules seen to be obeyed as they involve punishment
-Sophisticated level = considerations of factors such as human rights
-He said criminals have lower levels of moral reasoning
The levels of moral reasoning
Levels of moral reasoning:
-Level 1 = Pre-conventional -> simple need to avoid punishment and gain rewards -> Criminals are classed here
-Level 2 -> Conventional
-Level 3 -> Post-conventional
What are Kholberg’s cognitive distortions?
Cognitive distortions:
-Errors or biases in people’s information processing system, categorised by faulty thiking
-Used to explain how criminals interpret other’s behaviour and justify their own
-Eg hostile attribution bias and minimalisation
What is hostile attribution bias (Cognitive Distortions)
Hostile Attribution Bias:
-Tendency to misinterpret the actions of others, seeing them as hostile or confrontationa when they aren’t
-Trigger for possible agressive behaviour
Minimalisation (Cognitive Distortions)
Minimilisation:
-Denying or downplaying the seriousness of an offence
-This may involve using euphemisms (‘job’ rather than robbery)
Kholberg’s cognitive distortions evaluation
Kholberg’s cognitive distortions evaluation:
+ = Supporting Evidence -> Palmer and Hollin -> offenders showed less moral reasoning when presented with moral dilemma
- = Low levels of intelligence may be a bigger factor
+ = Real-world application -> offenders encouraged to confront seriousness of actions in CBT -> reducing denial and minimisation reduces re-offending
What is the differential association theory for criminal behaviour?
Differential Association Behaviour:
-Suggests individuals learn the values, attitudes and techniques for offending behaviour through association and interaction with different people
-Arises from: Pro-criminal attitudes and learning criminal acts
What are pro-criminal attitudes which increase criminality?
Pro-criminal attitudes:
-Individual is socialised into a group where that are more pro-criminal attitudes then anti, they go on to offend
-Includes disrepect for police and law
Learning criminal acts as a cause of criminality
Learning criminal acts:
-Potential criminal learns the practicalities of how to carry out criminal acts
-Takes place in groups and prison settings, explains high rates of re-offending in released prisoners
Socialisation in prison
Socialisation in prison:
-Offers explanation for why so many convicts reoffend on realease
-Assumes prisoners learn new skills and techniques from others in prison whilst surrounded by a criminal attitude
Differential Association Theory Evaluation
Differential Association Theory Evaluation:
- = Difficult to measure -> based on exposure to criminal attitude which is hard to measure objectively
- = Deterministic -> just because individual exposed to criminal attitude does not mean they become a criminal
+ = Considers environment -> lessens eugenics and biology
+ = Supporting research -> meta analysis found most offences were due to family criminality and poor parenting
What is the psychodynamic approach to criminal behaviour?
Psychodynamic:
Blockburn suggested criminal behaviour occurs as a result of an underdeveloped superego → ID is given ‘free reign’ to carry out selfish impulses, which manifests as criminal behaviour
-3 types of underdeveloped superego: Weak (due to absent same sex parent so doesn’t fully develop in childhood), Deviant (raised by criminal parent), Over-harsh (suerego focuses on punishment)
→ Considers the role of emotions which guides their moral behaviour
-Idea of maternal deprivation (Bowlby) → lack of an attachment leads to affectionless psychopathy
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach to criminal behaviour
+ = Contribution to criminology → links childhood experience and emotional basis of crimes
- = Androcentrism → suggests women more likely to commit crime due to lack of castration anxiety in childhood → statistically males are more likely
- = Hard to infer causality between childhood experience and criminal behaviour due to range of factors that could impact
- = Lack of empirical evidence + Psychic determinism
What is Kholberg’s cognitive approach to criminal behaviour?
- Kholberg suggested individuals ahve different levels of moral reasoning which can be investigated by presenting them with imagined moral dilemmas. He argued criminals have low levels of moral reasoning.
→Levels of moral reasoning → pre-conventional, convential, post-conventional ⇒ criminals are pre-conventional (simple need to avoid punishment and gain reward)
→Cognitive distotions ⇒ errors or biases in people’s information processing system categorised by faulty thinking → two examples of cognitive distortions are hostile attribution bias and minimilisation
→ Hostile attribution bias = Tendency to misinterpret actions of others seeing them as hostile when they aren’t → potential trigger for agressive behaviour
→ Minimalisation = denying or downplaying the seriousness of their offence → involves euphemisms (eg job rather than robbery) - Evaluate the cognitiv
Evaluate the cognitive approach to criminal behavior
+ = Research shown support for lower moral reasoning when criminals faced with imaginative moral dilemmas
- = Individual differences in levels of moral reasoning
- = Range of other explanations eg biological, psychodynamic, psychological
+ = Real world application → CBT → offenders face seriousness of their crime by reducing minimisation
What is custodial sentencing and its aims?
Custodial sentencing is where an offender spends time in a prison or other institution as punishment
4 main aims = deterrence (unpleasant experience), incapacitation (taken out of society due to danger), retribution (suffer to pay for crime), rehabilitation (reforming)
→ However there are psychological effects of incarceration → depression, suicide, instituionalisation (becoming accustomed to prison way of life makes it hard to adjust)
→Prisonisation = adoption of an ‘inmate code’ where certain behaviours viewed unacceptable in society are rewarded in instiution settings
→ Recidivism = reoffending = over 50% reoffend, highest in UK and US → lowest in Norway which emphasis on rehabilitation
Evaluate custodial settings.
- = Negative psychological effects → such as depression → may not be effective in rehabilitation
- = Arguments on alternative provisions that emphasise on restoring future prospects of jobs and family
+ = opportunity for rehabilitation which uses CBT - = Dfferential association theory suggests socialisation in prison increases reoffending → Recidivism over 50%
What is behaviour modification?
Behaviour modification programmes aims to reinforce obedient or desirable behaviour in offenders → based on behaviourist principle of conditioning
→ Token economies → based on operont conditioning → Positive reinforcement of good behaviour for rewards or punishment for bad behaviour
→ Designing and using token economies → operationalise target behaviours so its measurable, scoring system of how much behaviours are worth, train staff to standardise procedures
Evaluate behaviour modification of criminals.
+ = Easy to implement → doesn’t need specialist training and is cost effecitve
- = Little rehabilitation value → token economy not maintainable outside prison system → obedience to laws not rewarded etc
+ = Supporting research → Field found high effectiveness
- = Ethical issues → conditions are manipulative and dehumanising → such as lack of conformity leads to loss of priveleges
