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psychology paper 3 > gender > Flashcards

gender Flashcards

1
Q

sex

A

the biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy

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2
Q

gender

A

psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles

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3
Q

sex-role stereotypes

A

a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a society

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4
Q

gender dysphoria

A

when an individuals gender does not match their biological sex - so creates feelings of distress or discomfort

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5
Q

binary gender

A

the notion that there are two genders male and female to match the xx and xy sex chromosomes

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6
Q

gender non-binary

A

when a person does not identify with a male or female gender - this can be expressed through NB or enby

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7
Q

cisgender

A

when a person’s gender and their sex are congruent

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8
Q

gender fluid

A

when a person’s gender moves through the spectrum of male to female or outside of this spectrum

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9
Q

evaluation of sex-role stereotypes

A

Smith and Lloyd (1978)
- 4 to 6 month old babies who were dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls clothes
- babies assumed to be ‘boys’ were given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous
- babies assumed to be ‘girls’ were handed a cuddly doll

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10
Q

androgyny

A

a personality type with a combination of masculine and feminine qualities

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11
Q

BSRI

A

a self-report method to measuring androgyny (Bem Sex Role Inventory)
- uses a 7 point scale
- 60 items: 20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral

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12
Q

four categories of people

A
  • Masculine (high masc, low fem)
  • Feminine (low masc, high fem)
  • Androgynous (high masc, high fem)
    Undifferentiated (low masc, low fem)
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13
Q

strengths of bsri

A
  • self-report method
  • produces quantitative and qualitative data
  • primary data
  • standardised
  • test-rest reliability
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14
Q

limitations of bsri

A
  • self-report method
  • subjective ratings
  • participants may not understand some descriptors
  • low temporal validity (1974)
  • only four categories
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15
Q

research to support androgyny (serbin)

A

research has shown that androgyny is associated with positive mental health

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16
Q

research to support androgyny (bem)

A

research using the BSRI has found that 34% of males and 27% of females are androgynous

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17
Q

chromosomes

A

found in the nucleus of living cells carrying information in the form of genes
- the 23rd pair determines the biological sex

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18
Q

hormone

A

a chemical substance circulated in the blood that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs

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19
Q

testosterone

A

a hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes

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20
Q

oestrogen

A

the primary female hormone
- plays an important role in the menstrual and reproductive system

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21
Q

oxytocin

A

a hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation

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22
Q

role of chromosomes in biological sex

A

women and men have 23 pairs of matched chromosomes in each cell
- the 23rd pair of sex chromosomes are either XY (male) or XX (female)
- control the development of the gonads
- influence hormones produced by each sex
- typical development would mean males develop external sex organs, and females internal

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23
Q

genotype

A

DNA only
- combination of the chromosomes

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24
Q

phenotype

A

observable physical characteristics
- combination of the DNA and the environment

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25
Q

role of chromosomes in foetal development

A
  • until eight weeks, all foetus’ are identical (developing with female sex organs as standard)
  • the Y chromosome contains the SRY gene, which triggers the production of testosterone which then stops the development of internal sex organs and starts the development of the external sex orans
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26
Q

role of testosterone in biological sex

A
  • produced prenatally
  • produced by the gonads, and a small amount by the adrenal gland
  • causes the development of external gonads
  • responsible for secondary sexual characteristics
  • associated with the masculinisation of the brain (the development of brain areas linked to spatial skill, and also linked to competitiveness and aggressiveness)
  • increases the thickness of the corpus collosum in rats
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27
Q

evidence to support the role of testosterone (Dabbs et al)

A

Dabbs et al (1995)
- prison population
- offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes

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28
Q

evidence to support the role of testosterone (Goozen et al)

A

Goozen et al (1995)
- transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment
- transgender women shows decreases in aggression and visuo-spatial skills
- transgender males showed the opposite

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29
Q

contradictory evidence against testosterone (Tricker et al)

A

Tricker et al (1996)
- double-blind study
- 43 males
- given a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo
- no significant differences in aggression were found after the ten-week period between the two groups

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30
Q

role of oestrogen in biological sex

A
  • produced by the gonads, and a small amount by the adrenal gland
  • promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics
  • is involved with the menstrual cycle
  • influences emotions and causes PMT
  • linked to the production of serotonin
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31
Q

evidence to support the role of oestrogen (Albrecht and Pepe)

A

Albrecht and Pepe (1997)
- increasing levels in pregnant baboons led to heightened cortisol production
- this assisted the development of organs and tissues in foetuses
- this also led to reduced levels of miscarriage by regulating progesterone levels

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32
Q

the role of oxytocin in biological sex

A
  • produced in the hypothalamus by the pituitary gland
  • known as the “love hormone”
  • promotes feelings of bonding, calmness and contentment
  • oestrogen enhances oxytocin so increases its effects
  • testosterone dampens the effects of oxytocin
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33
Q

evidence to support oxytocin (White-Traut et al)

A

White-Traut et al (2009)
- measured oxytocin levels in saliva produced by females before, during and after breastfeeding
- oxytocin levels were higher immediately before feeding, decreased at initiation of feeding, and rose again 3 minutes after

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34
Q

limitation of the chromosomal and hormonal explanation (nature/nurture)

A

takes the side of nature
- focuses on biological concepts
- oversimplifies the causes of behaviour and ignores the impact on the environment

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35
Q

strength of the chromosomal and hormonal explanation (application)

A

practical applications for society
- can help to educate the scientific community about atypical gender development

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36
Q

atypical sex chromosomes

A

most individuals are born with XX or XY chromosomes, however, some have atypical chromosomes which can lead to atypical sex chromosome conditions`

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37
Q

turner’s syndrome

A

females only !!!
- caused by the absence of one X chromosome; referred to as XO
- the individual has 45 instead of 46 chromosomes
- affects 1/2200 females

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38
Q

physical characteristics of turner’s syndrome

A
  • no menstrual cycle
  • ovaries fail to develop (sterile)
  • broad shield chest (no breast development at puberty)
  • low set ears
  • webbed neck
  • the individual is physically immature, and tends to retain the appearance of a pre-pubescent girl
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39
Q

psychological characteristics of turner’s syndrome

A
  • higher than average reading ability
  • lower spatial, visual memory
  • lower maths skills
  • socially immature
  • trouble relating to peers
  • trouble fitting in
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40
Q

research on turner’s syndrome (Prince et al)

A

Prince et al (19860
- 156 females with TS
- longitudinal study for 17 years
- females with TS tend to have a shorter than average life span, compared to females without TS

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41
Q

research on turner’s syndrome (Brown et al)

A

Brown et al (2002)
- 26 girls matched for ages with and without TS
- used MRI scans
- found that girls with TS had smaller posterior cerebral and cerebellar brain areas
- TS affects the growth of certain brain areas

42
Q

research on turner’s syndrome (Quigley et al)

A

Quigley et al (2014)
- 123 girls with TS from ages 5 to 12
- gave them either oestrogen supplements or a placebo
- found that there was no differences in physical development between the two groups before age eight
- between the ages of 8-12, those given supplements had earlier and greater breast development compared to non TS girls

43
Q

klinefelter’s syndrome

A

males only !!!
- caused by an additional X chromosome; genetic make-up is XXY
- 47 chromosomes instead of 46
- affects 1/750 males

44
Q

physical characters of klinefelter’s syndrome

A
  • reduced body hair
  • some breast development
  • softening or rounding of body contours
  • long limbs
  • underdeveloped genitals
  • issues with co-ordination
  • males will often have breast cancer
45
Q

psychological characteristics

A
  • poorly developed language skills (dyslexia)
  • poor reading ability
  • passive, shy
  • lack interest in sexual activity
  • upset / depressed
  • unable to respond in stressful situations
  • problems with memory and problem solving
46
Q

research of klinefelter’s syndrome (Swerdlow et al)

A

Swerdlow et al (2005)
- looked at mortality in men diagnosed with KS in the UK over 40 years
- found that 13% of the patients had died which was a greater level than similar non KS patients
- most of the deaths were from cardiovascular, nervous respiratory diseases, as well as diabetes

47
Q

research of klinefelter’s syndrome (DeLisi)

A

DeLisi (2005)
- 11 KS participants and a control group
- given a psychiatric interview, cognitive tests and an MRI scan
- 10/11 KS males had smaller frontal lobes, temporal lobes and superior temporal gyrus brain areas
- explains the language deficits noted in the KS patients
- suggests that there is a biological basis to the issues experienced by some KS males

48
Q

research of klinefelter’s syndrome (Stochholm et al)

A

Stochholm et al (2012)
- 1005 Danish men with KS
- found that men with KS had higher convictions of sexual abuse, burglary and arson, compared to non-KS controls (these crimes are linked with anti-social behaviours and impulsivity)
- KS men had lower conviction rates for traffic and drug offences compared to non-KS men

49
Q

why is it important to study this topic

A
  • to understand the biological basis of atypical gender development
    0 provides theraputic value to those with the disorders because they can understand their condition and how to improve it
  • understanding the signs and symptoms can allow for an earlier diagnosis (individuals can get help sooner, leading to a better quality of life)
  • can contribute to our understanding of the nature-nurture debate in relation to gender development
50
Q

limitation of both atypical syndromes

A

Research Methods:
- small sample sizes
- only around 1/3 of people with klinefelters are aware that they have the condition

51
Q

strength of both atypical syndromes

A

Debates:
- contributes to our understanding of the nature/nurture debate in gender development

52
Q

psychodynamic explanation of gender

A
  • childhood is a critical period in development
  • behaviour driven by unconscious drives
53
Q

pre-phallic children

A
  • general developmental theory argues that children pass through five psychosexual stages that begins with oral and ends with genital
  • gender development occurs at the third stage which is the phalic stage
  • freud described pre-phalic children as bisexual as they are neither masculine or feminine
54
Q

oedipus complex

A
  • boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mothers and gain jealous and hatred for their fathers
  • however, the boy recognises how powerful his father is so fears he may be castrated
  • to resolve this conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father
55
Q

electra complex

A
  • girls experience penis envy
  • develop a double resentment towards their mothers
  • they resolve this conflict by having a male partner, and a male child
56
Q

identification

A
  • children of both sexes identify with the same-sex parents as a means of resolving their respective complexes
  • boys adopt the attitude of fathers and girls adopt the attitude of their mothers
57
Q

internalisation

A
  • taking on board the gender identity of the same-sex parent
  • children receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity at the end of the phallic stage
58
Q

strength of psychodynamic approach to explaining gender

A

research to support:
- Little Hans

59
Q

limitation of psychodynamic approach to explaining gender - debates

A
  • Deterministic
  • Not scientific
60
Q

limitation of psychodynamic approach to explaining gender - methodological issues

A

case studies
- can’t generalise

61
Q

social learning theory as an explanation to gender development

A
  • acknowledges the role that social context plays in development
  • states that all behaviour is learned through observing others
62
Q

observation and imitation

A

children may observe their role models being complimented for a certain gendered-behaviour, and begin to copy it

63
Q

direct reinforcement

A

children are reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender-appropriate

64
Q

differential reinforcement

A

boys and girls are reinforced for doing different things
- distinct gender-appropriate behaviours

65
Q

indirect reinforcement

A
  • vicarious reinforcement
  • affects the model, so does not impact the individual
66
Q

mediational processes

A

A - attention
R - retention
M - motivation
M - motor reproduction

67
Q

strength of social learning theory as an explanation of gender

A

research to support:
- Bandura (1963)
- children were more likely to imitate the behaviours if they were exposed to a same-sex model

68
Q

limitation of SLT as an explanation of gender - opposing theory

A
  • alternative explanations to explaining gender development
  • biological, cognitive, psychodynamic
69
Q

limitation of SLT as an explanation of gender - debates

A
  • determinism
  • reductionist
  • nurture
  • scientific
  • nomothetic
70
Q

gender roles

A

a set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for another

71
Q

culture

A

the ideas, customs or soical behaviour of a particular group of people or society

72
Q

cultural relativism

A

a term used to describe when behaviours differ between cultures

73
Q

culture bias

A

a term used when researchers use their own cultural ideas to judge other cultures

74
Q

why is it important to study gender across cultures

A
  • cross-cultural research is noted for its valuable contribution to the nature-nurture debate in gender
  • the debate about whether variations in psychological and behavioural traits are caused by innate or environmental factors
75
Q

universal feature

A

found everywhere
- suggests an innate basis for gender
- nature

76
Q

culturally specific feature

A

found in some places
- suggests that gender is learnt
- nurture

77
Q

Margret Mead

A

a cultural anthropologist
- born in the USA
- studied cultural variations amongst people and how this impacted their behaviour

78
Q

Margret Mead Study 1935

A

conducted research into cultural differences and gender roles in the tribal islands of New guinea:
- The Arapesh
- The Mundugumour
- The Tchambuli

79
Q

The Arapesh (tribe)

A
  • both men and women showed typical feminine behaviours (such as nurturing, gentle and caring)
80
Q

The Mundugumour (tribe)

A
  • both men and women showed masculine behaviours, acting in an aggressive and war-like manner
  • ex-cannibals
81
Q

The Tchambuli (tribe)

A
  • gender roles are reversed to a western culture
  • women were robust and practical
  • men spent time being flirtatious and trying to look good
82
Q

what does margret mead’s research suggest?

A
  • it suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender
  • gender may be largely constructed due to cultural influences
  • the nurture debate may be inappropriate to apply here and nature may be more relevant
83
Q

limitation of mead’s research

A
  • she is not from the same culture she is researching
  • she comes from a westernised culture with pre-determined views, theories and ideas
  • she may have made ethnocentric biased judgements regarding cultural differences in gender roles
84
Q

another limitation of mead’s research

A
  • observations
  • observer bias
  • participants could have caused the tribes to change their behaviours due to the observers presence
  • Freeman (1983) found in a follow-up study that mead was misled by some participants
85
Q

existence of cultural similarities in gender roles:
- David Buss (1995)

A
  • found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries
  • in all cultures, women looked for men who could offer wealth and resources
  • men looked for youth and social attractiveness
  • shows that nature plays a role in gender development
86
Q

criticism of david buss (1995)

A
  • low temporal validity
  • not representative (only 37 countries)
  • questionnaire
87
Q

role of media in gender development

A
  • provides a role model who children may identify with and therefore want to imitate their behaviour
  • children are more likely to select a role model who is of the same sex and who engage in gender-appropriate behaviours
88
Q

study for the role of the media in gender development
- Furnham and Farragher (2000)

A

Furnham and Farragher (2000)
- studied tv adverts
- found males were portrayed in professional contexts
- found females were portrayed in a domestic setting
- stereotypical gender roles are shown by the media which influences gender development in the audience`

89
Q

media and information giving

A
  • children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender-stereotypical views in their attitudes
  • media gives information to males and females (likely success of adopting gender-stereotypical behaviours)
90
Q

self-efficacy

A

bandura
- seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviours increases the childs beliefs that they are capable of carrying them out in the future

91
Q

cognitive explanation
- kholbergs theory

A
  • developed in 1966
  • based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes sophisticated with age
  • thought to process through three stages
92
Q

gender identity

A
  • age 2
    -children are able to identify themselves as a boy or a girl
  • age 3
  • most children are able to identify other people as male or female
93
Q

gender stability

A
  • age 4
  • children realise that they will stay the same gender
  • gender is an aspect of themselves that remains consistent overtime
  • children cannot apply this knowledge to other people or other situations
  • (female builder or man with long hair)
94
Q

gender constancy

A
  • age 6
  • apply that gender is consistent to other people and situations
  • no loner confused by external factors
  • children seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
  • once the concept of gender is internalised they seek evidence to confirm this concept
95
Q

research to support kholberg’s theory
- Slaby and Frey (1975)

A

Slaby and Frey (1975)
- younger children spend similar amounts of time observing both sexes
- children in the constancy stage spent longer watching the model that was the same sex as them
- links to kholberg’s identity stages

96
Q

limitation of kholberg’s theory
- opposing research

A

opposing research
- Bussey and Bandura (1992)
- children as young as 4 reported feeling good when playing with gender appropriate toys, and bad when playing with the opposite toys
- this shows that children begin to display gender-appropriate behaviour before the gender constancy stage

97
Q

limitation of kholberg’s theory
- research method

A

research method
- interviews
- children may not understand the concept of gender and may not have the ability to express their own gender

98
Q

limitation of kholberg’s theory
- debates

A
  • reductionist
  • nomothetic
  • determinism
99
Q

cognitive explanation
- gender schema theory

A

Martin and Halverson
- thinking is at the basis of a child’s development of gender role behaviours
- child’s understanding of gender increases with age
- the process starts earlier than kholberg suggests: children learn pre-programmed gender schema between the age of 2-3
- by 2-3 children have already developed a gender schema
- age of 6 they have developed a fixed schema

100
Q

research to support cognitive explanation / gender schema theory
- Martin and Halverson (1983)

A

martin and halverson (1983)
- children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviours
- children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent behaviours when asked to recall the images

101
Q

limitation of gender schema theory
- debates

A
  • interactionist: nature + nurture
  • nomothetic
  • not reductionist

psychology paper 3 (4 decks)

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