gender Flashcards
1
Q
sex
A
the biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
2
Q
gender
A
psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles
3
Q
sex-role stereotypes
A
a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a society
4
Q
gender dysphoria
A
when an individuals gender does not match their biological sex - so creates feelings of distress or discomfort
5
Q
binary gender
A
the notion that there are two genders male and female to match the xx and xy sex chromosomes
6
Q
gender non-binary
A
when a person does not identify with a male or female gender - this can be expressed through NB or enby
7
Q
cisgender
A
when a person’s gender and their sex are congruent
8
Q
gender fluid
A
when a person’s gender moves through the spectrum of male to female or outside of this spectrum
9
Q
evaluation of sex-role stereotypes
A
Smith and Lloyd (1978)
- 4 to 6 month old babies who were dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls clothes
- babies assumed to be ‘boys’ were given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous
- babies assumed to be ‘girls’ were handed a cuddly doll
10
Q
androgyny
A
a personality type with a combination of masculine and feminine qualities
11
Q
BSRI
A
a self-report method to measuring androgyny (Bem Sex Role Inventory)
- uses a 7 point scale
- 60 items: 20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral
12
Q
four categories of people
A
- Masculine (high masc, low fem)
- Feminine (low masc, high fem)
- Androgynous (high masc, high fem)
Undifferentiated (low masc, low fem)
13
Q
strengths of bsri
A
- self-report method
- produces quantitative and qualitative data
- primary data
- standardised
- test-rest reliability
14
Q
limitations of bsri
A
- self-report method
- subjective ratings
- participants may not understand some descriptors
- low temporal validity (1974)
- only four categories
15
Q
research to support androgyny (serbin)
A
research has shown that androgyny is associated with positive mental health
16
Q
research to support androgyny (bem)
A
research using the BSRI has found that 34% of males and 27% of females are androgynous
17
Q
chromosomes
A
found in the nucleus of living cells carrying information in the form of genes
- the 23rd pair determines the biological sex
18
Q
hormone
A
a chemical substance circulated in the blood that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs
19
Q
testosterone
A
a hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes
20
Q
oestrogen
A
the primary female hormone
- plays an important role in the menstrual and reproductive system
21
Q
oxytocin
A
a hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation
22
Q
role of chromosomes in biological sex
A
women and men have 23 pairs of matched chromosomes in each cell
- the 23rd pair of sex chromosomes are either XY (male) or XX (female)
- control the development of the gonads
- influence hormones produced by each sex
- typical development would mean males develop external sex organs, and females internal
23
Q
genotype
A
DNA only
- combination of the chromosomes
24
Q
phenotype
A
observable physical characteristics
- combination of the DNA and the environment
25
role of chromosomes in foetal development
- until eight weeks, all foetus' are identical (developing with female sex organs as standard)
- the Y chromosome contains the SRY gene, which triggers the production of testosterone which then stops the development of internal sex organs and starts the development of the external sex orans
26
role of testosterone in biological sex
- produced prenatally
- produced by the gonads, and a small amount by the adrenal gland
- causes the development of external gonads
- responsible for secondary sexual characteristics
- associated with the masculinisation of the brain (the development of brain areas linked to spatial skill, and also linked to competitiveness and aggressiveness)
- increases the thickness of the corpus collosum in rats
27
evidence to support the role of testosterone (Dabbs et al)
Dabbs et al (1995)
- prison population
- offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes
28
evidence to support the role of testosterone (Goozen et al)
Goozen et al (1995)
- transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment
- transgender women shows decreases in aggression and visuo-spatial skills
- transgender males showed the opposite
29
contradictory evidence against testosterone (Tricker et al)
Tricker et al (1996)
- double-blind study
- 43 males
- given a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo
- no significant differences in aggression were found after the ten-week period between the two groups
30
role of oestrogen in biological sex
- produced by the gonads, and a small amount by the adrenal gland
- promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics
- is involved with the menstrual cycle
- influences emotions and causes PMT
- linked to the production of serotonin
31
evidence to support the role of oestrogen (Albrecht and Pepe)
Albrecht and Pepe (1997)
- increasing levels in pregnant baboons led to heightened cortisol production
- this assisted the development of organs and tissues in foetuses
- this also led to reduced levels of miscarriage by regulating progesterone levels
32
the role of oxytocin in biological sex
- produced in the hypothalamus by the pituitary gland
- known as the "love hormone"
- promotes feelings of bonding, calmness and contentment
- oestrogen enhances oxytocin so increases its effects
- testosterone dampens the effects of oxytocin
33
evidence to support oxytocin (White-Traut et al)
White-Traut et al (2009)
- measured oxytocin levels in saliva produced by females before, during and after breastfeeding
- oxytocin levels were higher immediately before feeding, decreased at initiation of feeding, and rose again 3 minutes after
34
limitation of the chromosomal and hormonal explanation (nature/nurture)
takes the side of nature
- focuses on biological concepts
- oversimplifies the causes of behaviour and ignores the impact on the environment
35
strength of the chromosomal and hormonal explanation (application)
practical applications for society
- can help to educate the scientific community about atypical gender development
36
atypical sex chromosomes
most individuals are born with XX or XY chromosomes, however, some have atypical chromosomes which can lead to atypical sex chromosome conditions`
37
turner's syndrome
females only !!!
- caused by the absence of one X chromosome; referred to as XO
- the individual has 45 instead of 46 chromosomes
- affects 1/2200 females
38
physical characteristics of turner's syndrome
- no menstrual cycle
- ovaries fail to develop (sterile)
- broad shield chest (no breast development at puberty)
- low set ears
- webbed neck
- the individual is physically immature, and tends to retain the appearance of a pre-pubescent girl
39
psychological characteristics of turner's syndrome
- higher than average reading ability
- lower spatial, visual memory
- lower maths skills
- socially immature
- trouble relating to peers
- trouble fitting in
40
research on turner's syndrome (Prince et al)
Prince et al (19860
- 156 females with TS
- longitudinal study for 17 years
- females with TS tend to have a shorter than average life span, compared to females without TS
41
research on turner's syndrome (Brown et al)
Brown et al (2002)
- 26 girls matched for ages with and without TS
- used MRI scans
- found that girls with TS had smaller posterior cerebral and cerebellar brain areas
- TS affects the growth of certain brain areas
42
research on turner's syndrome (Quigley et al)
Quigley et al (2014)
- 123 girls with TS from ages 5 to 12
- gave them either oestrogen supplements or a placebo
- found that there was no differences in physical development between the two groups before age eight
- between the ages of 8-12, those given supplements had earlier and greater breast development compared to non TS girls
43
klinefelter's syndrome
males only !!!
- caused by an additional X chromosome; genetic make-up is XXY
- 47 chromosomes instead of 46
- affects 1/750 males
44
physical characters of klinefelter's syndrome
- reduced body hair
- some breast development
- softening or rounding of body contours
- long limbs
- underdeveloped genitals
- issues with co-ordination
- males will often have breast cancer
45
psychological characteristics
- poorly developed language skills (dyslexia)
- poor reading ability
- passive, shy
- lack interest in sexual activity
- upset / depressed
- unable to respond in stressful situations
- problems with memory and problem solving
46
research of klinefelter's syndrome (Swerdlow et al)
Swerdlow et al (2005)
- looked at mortality in men diagnosed with KS in the UK over 40 years
- found that 13% of the patients had died which was a greater level than similar non KS patients
- most of the deaths were from cardiovascular, nervous respiratory diseases, as well as diabetes
47
research of klinefelter's syndrome (DeLisi)
DeLisi (2005)
- 11 KS participants and a control group
- given a psychiatric interview, cognitive tests and an MRI scan
- 10/11 KS males had smaller frontal lobes, temporal lobes and superior temporal gyrus brain areas
- explains the language deficits noted in the KS patients
- suggests that there is a biological basis to the issues experienced by some KS males
48
research of klinefelter's syndrome (Stochholm et al)
Stochholm et al (2012)
- 1005 Danish men with KS
- found that men with KS had higher convictions of sexual abuse, burglary and arson, compared to non-KS controls (these crimes are linked with anti-social behaviours and impulsivity)
- KS men had lower conviction rates for traffic and drug offences compared to non-KS men
49
why is it important to study this topic
- to understand the biological basis of atypical gender development
0 provides theraputic value to those with the disorders because they can understand their condition and how to improve it
- understanding the signs and symptoms can allow for an earlier diagnosis (individuals can get help sooner, leading to a better quality of life)
- can contribute to our understanding of the nature-nurture debate in relation to gender development
50
limitation of both atypical syndromes
Research Methods:
- small sample sizes
- only around 1/3 of people with klinefelters are aware that they have the condition
51
strength of both atypical syndromes
Debates:
- contributes to our understanding of the nature/nurture debate in gender development
52
psychodynamic explanation of gender
- childhood is a critical period in development
- behaviour driven by unconscious drives
53
pre-phallic children
- general developmental theory argues that children pass through five psychosexual stages that begins with oral and ends with genital
- gender development occurs at the third stage which is the phalic stage
- freud described pre-phalic children as bisexual as they are neither masculine or feminine
54
oedipus complex
- boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mothers and gain jealous and hatred for their fathers
- however, the boy recognises how powerful his father is so fears he may be castrated
- to resolve this conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father
55
electra complex
- girls experience penis envy
- develop a double resentment towards their mothers
- they resolve this conflict by having a male partner, and a male child
56
identification
- children of both sexes identify with the same-sex parents as a means of resolving their respective complexes
- boys adopt the attitude of fathers and girls adopt the attitude of their mothers
57
internalisation
- taking on board the gender identity of the same-sex parent
- children receive a 'second-hand' gender identity at the end of the phallic stage
58
strength of psychodynamic approach to explaining gender
research to support:
- Little Hans
59
limitation of psychodynamic approach to explaining gender - debates
- Deterministic
- Not scientific
60
limitation of psychodynamic approach to explaining gender - methodological issues
case studies
- can't generalise
61
social learning theory as an explanation to gender development
- acknowledges the role that social context plays in development
- states that all behaviour is learned through observing others
62
observation and imitation
children may observe their role models being complimented for a certain gendered-behaviour, and begin to copy it
63
direct reinforcement
children are reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender-appropriate
64
differential reinforcement
boys and girls are reinforced for doing different things
- distinct gender-appropriate behaviours
65
indirect reinforcement
- vicarious reinforcement
- affects the model, so does not impact the individual
66
mediational processes
A - attention
R - retention
M - motivation
M - motor reproduction
67
strength of social learning theory as an explanation of gender
research to support:
- Bandura (1963)
- children were more likely to imitate the behaviours if they were exposed to a same-sex model
68
limitation of SLT as an explanation of gender - opposing theory
- alternative explanations to explaining gender development
- biological, cognitive, psychodynamic
69
limitation of SLT as an explanation of gender - debates
- determinism
- reductionist
- nurture
- scientific
- nomothetic
70
gender roles
a set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for another
71
culture
the ideas, customs or soical behaviour of a particular group of people or society
72
cultural relativism
a term used to describe when behaviours differ between cultures
73
culture bias
a term used when researchers use their own cultural ideas to judge other cultures
74
why is it important to study gender across cultures
- cross-cultural research is noted for its valuable contribution to the nature-nurture debate in gender
- the debate about whether variations in psychological and behavioural traits are caused by innate or environmental factors
75
universal feature
found everywhere
- suggests an innate basis for gender
- nature
76
culturally specific feature
found in some places
- suggests that gender is learnt
- nurture
77
Margret Mead
a cultural anthropologist
- born in the USA
- studied cultural variations amongst people and how this impacted their behaviour
78
Margret Mead Study 1935
conducted research into cultural differences and gender roles in the tribal islands of New guinea:
- The Arapesh
- The Mundugumour
- The Tchambuli
79
The Arapesh (tribe)
- both men and women showed typical feminine behaviours (such as nurturing, gentle and caring)
80
The Mundugumour (tribe)
- both men and women showed masculine behaviours, acting in an aggressive and war-like manner
- ex-cannibals
81
The Tchambuli (tribe)
- gender roles are reversed to a western culture
- women were robust and practical
- men spent time being flirtatious and trying to look good
82
what does margret mead's research suggest?
- it suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender
- gender may be largely constructed due to cultural influences
- the nurture debate may be inappropriate to apply here and nature may be more relevant
83
limitation of mead's research
- she is not from the same culture she is researching
- she comes from a westernised culture with pre-determined views, theories and ideas
- she may have made ethnocentric biased judgements regarding cultural differences in gender roles
84
another limitation of mead's research
- observations
- observer bias
- participants could have caused the tribes to change their behaviours due to the observers presence
- Freeman (1983) found in a follow-up study that mead was misled by some participants
85
existence of cultural similarities in gender roles:
- David Buss (1995)
- found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries
- in all cultures, women looked for men who could offer wealth and resources
- men looked for youth and social attractiveness
- shows that nature plays a role in gender development
86
criticism of david buss (1995)
- low temporal validity
- not representative (only 37 countries)
- questionnaire
87
role of media in gender development
- provides a role model who children may identify with and therefore want to imitate their behaviour
- children are more likely to select a role model who is of the same sex and who engage in gender-appropriate behaviours
88
study for the role of the media in gender development
- Furnham and Farragher (2000)
Furnham and Farragher (2000)
- studied tv adverts
- found males were portrayed in professional contexts
- found females were portrayed in a domestic setting
- stereotypical gender roles are shown by the media which influences gender development in the audience`
89
media and information giving
- children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender-stereotypical views in their attitudes
- media gives information to males and females (likely success of adopting gender-stereotypical behaviours)
90
self-efficacy
bandura
- seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviours increases the childs beliefs that they are capable of carrying them out in the future
91
cognitive explanation
- kholbergs theory
- developed in 1966
- based on the idea that a child's understanding of gender becomes sophisticated with age
- thought to process through three stages
92
gender identity
- age 2
-children are able to identify themselves as a boy or a girl
- age 3
- most children are able to identify other people as male or female
93
gender stability
- age 4
- children realise that they will stay the same gender
- gender is an aspect of themselves that remains consistent overtime
- children cannot apply this knowledge to other people or other situations
- (female builder or man with long hair)
94
gender constancy
- age 6
- apply that gender is consistent to other people and situations
- no loner confused by external factors
- children seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
- once the concept of gender is internalised they seek evidence to confirm this concept
95
research to support kholberg's theory
- Slaby and Frey (1975)
Slaby and Frey (1975)
- younger children spend similar amounts of time observing both sexes
- children in the constancy stage spent longer watching the model that was the same sex as them
- links to kholberg's identity stages
96
limitation of kholberg's theory
- opposing research
opposing research
- Bussey and Bandura (1992)
- children as young as 4 reported feeling good when playing with gender appropriate toys, and bad when playing with the opposite toys
- this shows that children begin to display gender-appropriate behaviour before the gender constancy stage
97
limitation of kholberg's theory
- research method
research method
- interviews
- children may not understand the concept of gender and may not have the ability to express their own gender
98
limitation of kholberg's theory
- debates
- reductionist
- nomothetic
- determinism
99
cognitive explanation
- gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson
- thinking is at the basis of a child's development of gender role behaviours
- child's understanding of gender increases with age
- the process starts earlier than kholberg suggests: children learn pre-programmed gender schema between the age of 2-3
- by 2-3 children have already developed a gender schema
- age of 6 they have developed a fixed schema
100
research to support cognitive explanation / gender schema theory
- Martin and Halverson (1983)
martin and halverson (1983)
- children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviours
- children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent behaviours when asked to recall the images
101
limitation of gender schema theory
- debates
- interactionist: nature + nurture
- nomothetic
- not reductionist
