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Psychology A Level (AQA) > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

Paper 3

1
Q

what is the difference between sex and gender

A

Sex - Biological and determined by chromosomes
Gender - social and is determined by behaviours, attitudes etc

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2
Q

What biological pattern of chromosomes do each sex have

A

Male - XY
Female - XX

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3
Q

What three types of ways may a person refer to someones sex

A
  • Chromosomal sex
  • Gonadal sex (The posession of ovaries or testes)
  • Genital sex (the posession of a vagina or penis)
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4
Q

Definition of gender identity disorder

A

When a person does not feel like their gender suits their sex

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5
Q

What does gender androgyny mean

A

When an individual has an equal balance of both male and female characteristics

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6
Q

How does Olds believe gender androgyny occurs

A

Developmental stage - only select people reach

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7
Q

How does Bem think gender adrogyny occurs

A

Differing cognitives styles - variety of behaviours can be adopted

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8
Q

How does Orlofsky think gender androgony occurs

A

Behavioural style - learned by reinforcement

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9
Q

Bem Sex Role Inventory - Procedure

A

Stage 1:
- 100 Americans students (50/50) asked to rate 200 traits as masculine or feminine
- 60 traits selected for the final inventory - 20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neutral
- The BSRI was then created - each participant would be asked to rate themselves on a 7 point likert scale for each of the 60 traits
- Results led to 1 of 4 categories :
- Masculine
- Feminine
- Androgynous
- Undifferentiated

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10
Q

How did Bem ensure the test was reliable

A
  • BSRI piloted on 1000 students to see if their result matched their own description - it did
  • Some of the 1000 were tested again a month later
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11
Q

What approach can we link with sex - role stereotypes and why

A

Social learning theory - imitating models

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12
Q

What result on the BSRI would make an individual undifferentiated

A

Low masculine , Low feminine

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13
Q

Two (+) positives of the Bem study

A
  • High degree of validity - the gender/ gender neutral traits included on the inventory identified by 100 people (no experimenter bias)
  • Test - retest vaidity high - they redid the test 1 month later and similar scores were revealed
  • Bem concluded that androgyny was a very positive attitude/ choice
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14
Q

What may a counterpoint be to Bem saying that androgyny is a positive choice

A

Some argue that it is dependent on what society you live in (e.g masculine people fit in easier in a patriarchal society - Batista boys) - Cultural bias

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15
Q

1 negative of Bems study

A

Gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score - BSRI has been developed - e.g PAQ (Personal Attribute Questionnaire) - this still suggests that it is still quantifiable though

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16
Q

What is the chromosomic pattern in Turners Syndrome

A

XO - only one X chromosome on 23rd pair

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17
Q

What is the chromosomic pattern in Klinefelters Syndrome

A

XXY - additional X chromome on 23rd pair

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18
Q

Approximately how many females are affected by Turners Syndrome

A

1 in 5000

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19
Q

Females with Turners Syndrome have how many chromosomes

A

45

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20
Q

What are some physical characteristics of Turners Syndrome

A
  • Do not have a menstrual cycle
  • Sterile (as ovaries do not develop)
  • Breasts do not develop
  • Webbed neck
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21
Q

What are some psychological characteristics of Turners Syndrome

A
  • Higher than average reading ability
  • Poor visual memory
  • Poor spatial awareness
  • Lower than average mathematical skills
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22
Q

What are some physical characteristics of Klinefelters Syndrome

A
  • Reduced body hair
  • May be some breast development
  • Long gangly limbs
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23
Q

What are some psychological characteristics of Klinefelters Syndrome

A
  • Poorly developed language skills & reading ability
  • Passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity
  • Have problems with memory and / or problem solving
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24
Q

What are two positives of Atypical sex chromosomic patterns

A
  • Studies of people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are useful as they contribute to our understanding of the nature - nurture debate in gender development
  • continued research into atypical chromosomes is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of Turners and Klinefelters Syndromes as well as more positive outcomes in the future - practical application
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25
Q

Three negatives of atypical chromosomes patterns

A
  • Issues with leaping to conclusions - environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences - nature vs nurture
  • Generalisability as conclusions are drawn from unrepresentative sample (atypical to wider population)
  • Those with the syndromes may look different leading to them being treated differently - can be difficult to assess the relative contribution of nature and nurture
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26
Q

What are the six main hormones

A
  • Oestregen
  • Testoterone
  • Progesterone
  • Oxytocin
  • Melatonin
  • Cortisol
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27
Q

What produces androgens and what are androgens

A

Androgens - male sex horomones
SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo

28
Q

Which pair of chromosomes determines a persons sex

A

23rd

29
Q

what is oestregen responsible for

A

Female hormone which determines characteristics and menstruation

30
Q

what is progesterone responsible for

A

(Secondary female hormone) - assists with the menstrual cycle and plays a role in pregnancy

31
Q

what is testoterone responsible for

A

Main sex hormone in men - controls the development of male sex hormones

32
Q

what is oxytocin responsible for (and which sex produces more of it)

A

Controls key aspects of the reproductive system - including childbirth and lactation - referred to as the ‘love hormone’ - encourages bonding

33
Q

what is cortisol responsible for

A

‘Stress hormone’ because of the way it assists the body in responding to stress

34
Q

what are two positives supporting the biological theory of gender

A
  • Dabbs et al - did a study of a prison population : found that offenders with highest levels of testoterone committed more violent and / or sexually motivated crimes
  • Van Goozen et al : studied transgender undergoing hormone replacement therapy - male to females showed decreases in aggression and vice versa
35
Q

Three negatives of the biological theory of gender (hormones)

A
  • Tricker et al - double blind procedure - 43 males given 10 weekly testoterone injections or placebo - no significant differences between groups behaviour were identified
  • Rodin - feminist - claims PMS is a male social construction used to demonstrate female behaviours
  • A lot of studies have done on a small scale or on animals (Van de Poll et al) so hard to generalise
36
Q

What does ARMM stand for (mediational processes)

A

Attention
Retention
Motivation
Motor Reproduction

37
Q

What is the process called where a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to be like themselves or someone they want to be like

A

Identification

38
Q

Two positives on social learning theory and gender

A
  • Smith and Lloyd (1978) 4-6 months babies were dresses half the time in boys’ clothes and the other half in girls’. - When participants were asked to play with them they assumed gender based on clothes they wore and offered the ‘boys’ hammers and the ‘girls’ dolls - suggests that gender is learned at a very early age via role models
  • SLT may be better than Biological approach in explaining gender changes - over the years there have been big changes in how we perceive gender and gender expectations but there hasnt been a big change in how we view sex
39
Q

Two negatives on social learning theory and gender

A
  • Not a developmental theory - doesn’t explain how learning processes change with age - motor reproduction changes with age : Dubin - although the child may take note of behaviour of same-sex role model selection and imitation does not occur until later stages of life
  • Kohlberg (cognitive) would agree with some aspects of SLT - identification / role - models but would agree with Dubin that a lot of behaviours might only manifest later in ‘gender constancy’ stage
40
Q

what are the 3 gender stages and the ages associated with them - Kohlbergs theory (ISC)

A

Stage 1 - Gender identity - 2-3 years old
Stage 2 - Gender stability - 4-6 years old
Stage 3 - Gender constancy - 6-7 years old

41
Q

Stage 1 - gender identity (what happens during this stage)

A
  • Child is aware that they are either male or female
  • can categorise others as male or female by making judgements based on superficial characteristics
  • thinks based off this that other peoples gender can change
42
Q

Stage 2 - gender stability (what happens during this stage)

A
  • Child realised that their own gender is fixed over time
  • Still thinks that gender can for others dependent on the situation
43
Q

Stage 3 - gender constancy (what happens during this stage)

A
  • Gender remains fixed over time (for both themselves and other people)
    -develop their own gender role through looking at role models (SLT!!)
44
Q

What did piaget say about gender (egocentrism and conservation)

A
  • Described all children as egocentric (assume everyone sees the world the same way as they do) until the ages of 6 and 7
  • when they begin to decentre they realise that not everyone has the same views and opinions as they do
  • conservation : older children acquire the understanding that properties of an object remain the same when its outward appearance changes
45
Q

What are 2 positives for the cognitive explanations (Kohlberg)

A
  • Slaby & Frey - children presented with split screen images of males/females performing the same task - young children spent equal time looking at both , those in gender constancy spent more time looking at same-sex gender models
  • Munroe - cross cultural evidence - Kenya , Somoa, Nepal
46
Q

What are 2 (+) negatives for the cognitive explanations (Kohlberg)

A
  • Children adopt gender appropriate behaviour before gender constancy - Bandura et al : reported that children ‘felt good’ about playing with certain gendered toys
  • Methodological issues : Kohlberg used interviews with the youngest being 2/3 - lack appropriate vocab to express themselves - low validity
  • Theory too simple
  • Theory developed in 1966 - outdated and idea that sex and gender are the same
47
Q

What is a schema

A

A collection of beliefs or ideas on a particular topic - derived from experience

48
Q

How do Martin and Halverson agree with Kohlberg

A
  • Childrens understanding of gender develops with age
  • Children develop their understanding of gender by actively learning how to be male or female not just by passively learning / watching and imitating role models
49
Q

How did Martin and Halverson disagree with Kohlberg

A
  • the process of understanding gender occurs before gender constancy is reached :
    once a child has established a gender identity they will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema
  • stereotypes affect later behaviour
50
Q

By what age has a child developed a stereotyped schema

A

6

51
Q

What will a child begin to do with conflicting information once they have developed a stereotyped schema

A
  • Forget , misremember or disregard conflicting information
52
Q

Study (1983) -direct behaviour & self - understanding (Martin & Halverson)

A
  • 20 children aged 6
  • Showed them 20 photos (10 x gender consistent & 10 x gender inconsistent) and asked them to recall one week later (avoids maintenance rehearsal)
    findings:
  • children more likely to remember photographs of gender consistent behaviour than gender inconsistent
  • tended to change the gender of person carrying out gender inconsistent behaviour during recall to make it fit better with their own gender schema
53
Q

Ingroups & Outgroups - what does this mean

A

Ingroup - once a child knows what group they belong in they focus more attention on this group
Outgroup - the other sex (the group they do not identify with)

54
Q

What are 2 (+) positives of Martin and Halversons theory

A
  • Campbell et al - used 3 groups of babies : 3 months ,9 months and 18 months - used visual preference technique
    3 month old babies showed a slight preference towards same sex babies (BANDURA!)
    both boys and girls preferred to watch in group activities - boys have stronger drive to tune in to their ingroup
    babies develop gender schemas before they can even talk
  • Martin et al (1995) - 4&5 year olds (gender stability) shown range of toys , before they played with a toy they were told whether it was for boys or girls - the label of the toy affected the preference the child gave it (conservation - Piaget)
  • Theory can account for the ideas that young children hold fairly rigid and fixed gender attitudes - ideas that go against are discounted or ignored by child
55
Q

What is a negative of Martin and Halversons theory

A
  • Cannot explain where schemas originate & why they develop : ignores impact of parents, culture - nature vs nurture
56
Q

What is the order of stages in Freuds psychosexual stages

A
  • Oral
  • Anal
  • Phallic
  • Latency
  • Genital
57
Q

What is a way of remebering Freuds psychosexual stages

A

Old , Age , Pensioners , Like , Guiness

58
Q

What are the 3 different parts of the psyche and what are the principles attached to them

A

Id - Pleasure principle
Superego - Morality principle
Ego - Reality principle

59
Q

When does (what stage) Freud say gender devlopment occurs

A

Phallic stage - Age 3-7

60
Q

How does Freud refer to children who are either nor masculine nor feminine

A

Bisexual

61
Q

What is the Oedipus complex (use key terms - CA , GI)

A

Boy develops incenstuos feelings towards mother - sees father as rivalry
- Boy becomes scared father will find out and punish him through castration - Castration Anxiety
- To resolve conflict - Gender Identification - boy begins to want to be like father

62
Q

What is the Electra complex and who came up with the theory (use key terms - PE, GI)

A

Jung
- Opposite of Oedipus complex - Girl develops feelings towards father
- Experiences Penis Envy - blames mother for lack of penis
- When they understand they cannot have a penis they desire a baby instead - Gender Identification and what to be like mother

63
Q

Identification and internalisation - when does it happen and what does it mean

A

Occurs towards the end of the phallic stage - children resolve their conflicts by identifying with the same sex parent
Identification develops a superego (adopting parents morals) they then internalise this

64
Q

Little Hans case study - Freuds interpretation

A
  • Hans - 5 year old boy with morbid fear of being bitten by a horse - fear stemmed from seeing a horse collapse and die on street
  • Freuds interpretation - suggested his fear of being bitten by a horse was represented through his fear of castration - transferred fear through defence mechanism of displacement
65
Q

One positive of the psychodynamic approach in gender development

A
  • Little Hans case study - often longitudinal showing long-term impact of theory, more in depth qualitative data
66
Q

2 (+) negatives of the psychodynamic approach in gender development

A
  • Horney - what about womb envy? - penis envy theory conducted in culturally patriarchal society - theory is androcentric
  • Freuds theory relies heavily on nucleur families (heterosexual) - in his theory other families would not be able to cope with Oedipus or Electra complex :
    Gdomback et al : single parent family children went on to develop healthy gender identities
    Green : studied children raised by gay or transgender parents and only 1/37 children had a ‘non-typical’ gender identity
  • Freuds methodology was case studies - children often lie which impacts validity, lack of scientific figures , findings are not representative so cannot generalise to wider population

Psychology A Level (AQA) (12 decks)

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