gen bio 2 exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the levels of organization?
A
Organism -> organ system -> organ ->tissue -> cell -> organelles ->membrane -> macromolecules ->large molecules ->functional groups -> atom -> subatomic particles
2
Q
What are the biologically important molecules?
A
A) organic
b) inorganic
3
Q
What is an organic molecule?
A
Typically molecules that contain carbon are organic molecules
4
Q
What is an inorganic molecule?
A
Typically molecules that don’t have carbon are inorganic molecules
5
Q
Organism
A
GENERALLY, organisms are composed of 2+ organ systems, although protists, bacteria, and archaea are unicellular and so don’t have organs
6
Q
Organ
A
Has 2+ tissue types that work towards the same function
7
Q
Tissue
A
has 2+ cell types that work together for a similar function
8
Q
Cell
A
The smallest unit of life, and typically has compartments/organelles within
9
Q
Organelle
A
A sub-cellular structure that serves some purpose to help the cell
10
Q
Membrane
A
Typically phospholipid bilayers which surround cytoplasm to form an organelle
11
Q
Macromolecules
A
Large molecules, like DNA, and polysaccharides, proteins
12
Q
Simple molecules
A
things like o2, co2, h2o
13
Q
functional groups
A
small molecular groups that have recognizable features, and they carry these features to the larger molecules hat contain them
14
Q
Atom
A
smallest unit of an element
15
Q
Subatomic particles
A
protons, neutrons, electrons
16
Q
Proton
A
Carries a +1 charge, and weighs 1 dalton
17
Q
Electron
A
Carries a -1 charge, and weighs 1/2000 of a dalton
18
Q
Neutron
A
Carries a 0 charge, and weighs 1 dalton
19
Q
What 6 elements make up 98% of the human body?
A
CHNOPS, carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulfur
20
Q
What are the rest of the essential elements?
A
Na, Cl, Ca, Mg, Fe, I, Zn
21
Q
What are the 4 trace elements?
A
Co, Cu, Mb, Se
22
Q
What are important heavy metals?
A
As, Cd, Hg, Pb (these are toxic!!)
23
Q
What are the four families of biological molecules/
A
1) lipids 2) carbohydrates 3) amino acids 4) nucleic acids
All of these have recognizable features
24
Q
Atomic Number
A
of protons in an atom
25
Atomic Mass
Weight of all subatomic particles in an atom (Protons + neutrons + Electrons)
26
Isotope
An element with a different amount of neutrons than it normally does
27
What is the radioactive decay of Tritium?
Tritium (2 neutrons, 1 proton) since its unstable (has more neutrons than protons0 one of the neutrons turns into a proton, and a beta particle (in this case an electron0 is sent flying away and the tritium turns into helium-3 (2 protons, 1 neutron)
28
What are some medical uses of radioactive decay?
1) medical imaging using a radioactive isotope of glucose
2)killing cells for caner therapy
3) safety and regulations, knowing how to dispose of radioactive materials, and how to protect ourselves from them
29
Ions
A charged version of an element
30
Cation
A positive Ion
31
Anion
A negative ion
32
Basic electrostatics
1) <- (+) (+) ->
2) <- (-) (-) ->
3) (-) -><- (+)
33
How many electrons can the first three electron shells hold individually?
1) 2
2) 8
3) 8
34
Explain how chlorine and sodium ionically bond
Na (11p, 12n, 11e) Cl(17p, 18n, 17e) -> Na+1 (11p, 12n, 10e) Cl-1 (17p, 18n, 18e)
35
Molecule
2+ elements chemically bonded
36
Mixture
2+ solutes dissolved by a solvent, but not chemically bonded
37
Solute
That which is dissolved
38
Solvent
That which is dissolved
39
Aqueous mixture
water is the solvent
40
Homogeneous mixture
all the solutes are evenly dissolved, and the solutes don't settle
41
Suspension
larger particles in a solvent, but then don't actually dissolve
42
Ionic bond
3-7 kcal/mol
between a cation and an anion
43
Covalent bond
shared electrons
50-110 kcal/mol
single/double/triple
44
Octet rule
atoms like their valence shell filled
45
compound
molecule of 2+ elements
46
Bond angle
the angles at which bonds form
47
Nonpolar vs Polar covalent
nonpolar = electrons shared equally, similar electronegatvities. Polar is opposite
48
electronegativity
pull on a shared electron
49
hydrogen bonds
bonds of (delta)+/- between hydrogens, oxygens, of flourines
3-7 kcal/mol
50
water properties from hydrogen bonds
cohesion
surface tension
high heat capacity
great solvent
51
van der waals forces
brief, 1 kcal/mol
formed from dipoles of NONPOLAR molecules
52
dipole
when one atom has its electrons go all to one side randomly, creating a slightly negative and positive area, which causes another atom to do the same
53
Hydorphobic
Is not attracted to water, repeled by it
54
Hydrophilic
is dissolved by water, usually is charged and has hydrogen bonding
55
Charge Shielding
When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, and the solvent surround the solute
56
Synthesis Reactions
A + B -> AB
57
Decomposition Reactions
AB -> A + B
58
Exchange Reactions
AB + CD -> AD + BC
59
Hydroxyl
OH-, polar, hydrogen bonds
60
Aldehyde
Polar, reactive, COH
61
Carbonyl
CO, polar, important in carbs
62
Carboxyl
Charged, acidic, in dehydration synthesis, ionizes to COO- H+
63
Amino
NH2, charged, Basic, forms NH3+, dehydration synthesis
64
Phosphate
Charged, acidic, PO3
65
Sulfhydryl
Disulfhyde bridge
66
Methyl
CH3, nonpolar, hydrophobic
67
Methane;Ethane;Propane;Butane;...
CH4;C2H6;C3H8;C4H10
68
Structural Isomer
Two molecules, same atoms and # of them, different connectivity
69
Optical Isomers
Mirror image molecules
70
THALIDIMIDE
R + S isomers (optical) s causes birth defects, other helps w/ pregnancy sickness, racemize in blood pH so yeah
71
Pentanes-17c, 18c+
pentanes-17 are liquid, and 18c+ are solid, van der waals has a greater effect w/ larger molecules
72
Alcohols
Defined by their OH group(s) and their methyl group(s)
The solubility of OH is > the hydrophobics of ~4 methyls
73
Methanyl (methyl alcohol)
CH3OH
H
H-C-OH
H
74
Ethanyl (ethyl alcohol)
C3H5OH
H H
H-C---C-OH
H H
75
Propyl (propyl alcohol)
C3H7OH (Isoproponyl is
H H H
H-C-C-C-H
H OH H )
76
Ethynyl, Proponyl, Methanyl are ___
Infinitely Miscable
77
4+ C alcohols are _
limited miscability
78
Butonyl
C4H9OH
79
Alcohol.... 1C-11C, 12+c
1C-11C are liquids at room temp, 25 degrees celcius
12C+ are solid at room temp
80
Carbohydrates....
Are sugars
function as a fuel source
cell signaling
-3 carbon minimum
-one carbonyl (c=O)
-all other carbons have an OH
81
Difference between Aldehyde Carb, and Ketone Carb
Aldehydes have the carbonyl on an end carbon, while ketone doesn't have the carbon on an end carbon
82
Aldehyde Triose
H - C = O
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H
83
Ketone Triose
H
H--C--OH
C = O
H-C-OH
H
84
What % of carbs are open chain?
1%, 99% are in ring form
85
How do ring forms occur?
A hydrogen of one Carbon, and the hydroxyl of another make a hydrogen bond, forming a ring
86
Glucose Chain formul;a
H - C = O
H - C - OH
OH - C - H
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H
87
Galactose chain formula
H - C = O
H - C - OH
OH - C - H
OH - C - H
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H
88
Fructose chain formula
H - C - OH
C = O
OH - C - H
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H
89
Alpha Glucose
the H is on the top, OH on the bottom( carbon 1)
digestible by humans
90
Beta Glucose
H is on the bottom, OH is on the top, (carbon 1)
not digestible by humans
91
Simple Carbohydrates
3-6 carbon sugars, 5C sugars are second most common, while 6C sugars are most common
92
Difference between deoxy/ ribose
deoxyribose has 1 less oxygen on the second carbon
93
What bond/force would occur between two ethanols primarily?
A)covalent
B)ionic
C)VDW
D)hydrogen
D) hydrogen
94
what bond/force between 2 octane molecules would happen primarily?
A)covalent
B)ionic
C)VDW
D)hydrogen
C) VDW
95
Which of the following would have the strongest connection?
A) 2 octane molecules
B) 2 ethane molecules
C) 1 ethane, 1 octane
A) 2 octane molecules
96
Acid
Proton/hydrogen ion
97
Base
a hydrogen/proton acceptor
98
strong acid
HCl, a molecule where hydrogen is completely removed
99
weak acid
a molecule where it can lose a hydrogen but readily pick it back up, carbonic acid H2CO3
100
Strong base
NaOH -> Na+ + OH-, molecule that completely separates to form a hydrogen acceptor
101
Weak base
NH3 + H20 <-> NH4+ + OH-, molecule that can transform to form a hydrogen acceptor and back
102
what is pH?
measure of free h+ [H3O+] in solution,
-log(base 10)[h+ concentration], 7 pH is neutral, pH [X] = 1 * 10^-[X]
103
What is the blood pH in humasn?
7.35-7.45
104
What are reversibly dissociative molecules?
molecules that can lose their hydrogen (dissociative state), and then pick it back up (non dissociative state)
105
Carboxyl non-dissociative -> dissociative
.......O O
|| ||
C - OH <-> C - O- + H+
106
pKa is....
at what value (pH) a readily dissociative molecule is 50% dissociative, and 50% non-dissociative
107
Acetic acid (vinegar) non-dissociative -> dissociative
....H O H O
| || | ||
H-C-C-OH <-> H-C-C-O- + H+ (pKa 4.75)
| |
H H
108
Formic Acid non-dissociative -> dissociative state
......O O
|| <-> ||
H---C--OH H-C-O- + H+ (pKa 3.75)
109
Amine non-dissociative -> dissociative
H H
| |
N-H+ <-> N + H+
| |
H H
110
Buffer
A molecule than can accept/lose a hydrogen to resist changes in pH
111
What is a lipid?
Fat, used for structure, used for thermal and mechanical insulation, aswell as cell signaling
111
Short-very long chain fatty acid
Short:4-8
Medium:10-12
Long: 14-18
Very Long: 20-24
111
General Fatty Acid Structure
......H...H,,,,H....H...H...O
H - C - C - C - C - C - C - OH
.......H...H...H...H...H
111
Fat vs. Oil
Fat:
1) mostly saturated fatty acids
2) come from animals
3) solid at room temp
Oils:
1) mostly unsaturated fatty acids
2) mostly from plants
3) generally liquid at room temp
111
Adipocytes cytoplasm is filled w/ what?
Triglycerides
111
Formic Acid
......O
......||
H - C - OH
112
Saturated vs. Unsaturated
Saturated have no double bonds between carbons, and saturated have a higher melting point. More unsaturated, lower melting point
112
Acetic Acid
.........O
....H.||
H-C-C-OH
...H
113
Stearic acid
18 carbon saturated, melts at 69 degrees celcius
114
Oleic Acid
monounsaturated (C9), melts at 13 degrees celcius, 18 carbon
115
Linoleic Acid
polyunsaturated (C9,C12), 18C, melts at -9 degree celcius
116
Linolenic Acid
18C, polyunsaturated (C9,C12,C15), melts at-17 degrees celcius
117
What are two essential fatty acids?
Linoleic Acid, Linolenic Acid
118
Difference between cis and trans fats
Cis fats have the hydrogen at the same side at the carbon double bind, making a greater kink. Trans fats have the hydrogen on opposite sides at double bond, making the fatty acid straighter, increasing melting point, more straight
119
Arachidonic acid
shaped like a hair pin, 4 double bonds, 20 carbons
120
Function of cycloxygenase
turns Arachidonic acid into Thromboxanes, Leukotrienes, and prostaglandins
121
Thrombaxanes funciton
better platelet function
122
Leukotrienes function
signaling molecule for inflation
123
Prostaglandins
signaling molecule for local pain
124
Omega 6 fatty acid
Carbon double bond is at carbons 6+7
125
Triglycerides
. energy source through metabolism
.insulation (mechanical and thermal)
.production of hormones
126
Glycerol formula
.....H
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
H - C - OH
.....H
127
how do fatty acids connect to glycerol?
hydroxyl on carboxyl part of fatty acid loses its hydrogen to the hydroxyl on glyceral, causing dehydration synthesis (covalent bond)
The attatched fatty acids can differ in length, and double bond placement
128
What is a phospholipid?
A glycerol, with two fatty acids and a phosphate connected w/ an x group.
The phosphate makes up the hydrophilic head, and fatty acids are hydrophobic tail
129
Lecithin
-Emulsifier
-made by liver into bile
Turns large fats into micelles, allowing lipases to function more effectively, amphipathic
130
You have an aqueous solution of acetic acid at pH3, and pKa of acetic acid is 4.75,what state is the majority of acetic acid in?
non-dissociated/protonated
131
Steroids
based off of cholesterol
some hormones are derivatives of cholesterol
component of cell membrane
4 carbon ring core, side chains, hydrophobic
132
Amino acids
building blocks for protein
20 amino acids
generally hydrophilic
some are cell signaling molecules
133
Glyceine
H
134
Alanine
CH3
135
What are the states of the amino and carboxyl group at pH 10? (amine pKa = 9, carboxyl is 4.5)
The amine and carboxyl will both be in dissociated/non-protonated forms)
136
What are the states of the amino and carboxyl group at pH 7? (amine pKa = 9, carboxyl is 4.5)
Amine will be non-dissociated, carboxyl will be dissociated
137
What are the states of the amino and carboxyl group at pH 10? (amine pKa = 3, carboxyl is 4.5)
Both will be non-dissociated
138
peptide bond is....
covalent bond between amino acids
139
explain how two amino acids connect/bond
dont be stupid explain it shit head
140
oligopeptides
4-20 peptides long
141
polypeptide
21+ peptides long
142
N-terminus and C-terminus
N terminus: the "start" of the polypeptide, end with a methyl group on the end
C-Terminus: the "end" of the polypeptide, end with a carboxyl group
143
Small, and large proteins
small: ~50 AA, large: ~1,000 AA
144
primary protein structure
sequence of amino acids, determines how folding occurs
145
secondary protein structure
local folding of polypeptide chain into alpha helices or beta pleated sheets, held together by hydrogen bonds
146
tertiary protein structure
overall structure of properly folded protein
147
quaternary protein strucutre
2+ properly folded tertiary protein structures to make one large protein
148
what bonds hold together tertiary and quaternary protein structure?
Weak:
H-bonds
london dispersion forces
hydro phobic/philic interactions
Strong:
Disulfide bridge, covalent bond formed between two cysteines
149
Sickle Cell Anemia
-Caused by genetic mutation
-Under low o2 levels, the hemoglobin polypeptide unfolds and exposes a patch of hydrophobic AA, and these hydrophobic AA clump together and form aggregates of proteins
- These aggregates can block small blood vessels
-They can rupture, and cause excess blood protein which damages nephrons
150
Denaturation
The unfolding of a properly folded protein, not the degradation of a protein (breaking it up physically)
151
Major causes of protein denaturation
1) Temperature increases, breaks H-bonds
2) pH changes, disrupts ionic binds and rev. group changes
3) organic solutes , disrupts hydrophobic interactions
4) other chemicals, disrupt intramolecular bonds
152
B-mercaptoethanol
breaks disulfide bridges
153
can protein denaturation be reversed
Sometimes it can be reversed, and degradation can be partial or complete
154
Surface features of plasma membranes
Flagella/Cilia
Cell Wall
Plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
155
Cytoplasm
Cytosol and compartments
156
Cytosol
Aqueous solution w/ ions, small molecules and soluble macromolecules
157
Compartments
membrane enclosed organelles
158
Nucleiod
Are where DNA is in prokaryotes
159
Phospholipid bi layer characteristics
Phospholipids rarely flip flop between layers
move freely within layer
Spontaneously form bilayers n aqueous solutions
160
Integral Membrane Protein
Trans membrane: goes all the way through both sides of the bilayer
Partial: you get it
161
Peripheral membrane protein
associated w/ bilayer, but doesn't penetrate it
162
Function of cholesterol in bilayer
Helps reduce rigidity by stopping a lot of VDW between big triglycerides
Helps reduce movement of phospholipids around within a single layer
163
How thick is the lipid bilayer?
4-5 nm, and no water within the bilayer
164
what side are glycoprotein/glycolipids?
extracellular
165
Cytoskeleton proteins....
(actin/microfilaments) form a criss-corssing lattice under the phosoplipid bilayer to support
166
Fluid Mosaic Model
-phospholipids undulate and move around
membrane proteins are the mosaic
167
ECM
Extra cellular matrix, proteoglycan and collagen
Like straw bedding for he cell
membrane proteins bind to
168
Tight Junctions
Stitch like, prevent chemicals pasing through skin
169
Desmosomes
strong mechanical connections, proteins fit together like lock and key between cells
170
gap junctions
like pores between cells for transport of stuff
171
Integrin
Transmemrane proteins that have reversible binds w/ active/inactive states, pairs of dimers
bind to ECM
172
What is lipid bilayer permeable to?
Small molecules
hydrophobic, lipophilic molecules
large/polar/charged molecules need help!
173
What helps polar/charged molecules across lipid bilayer?
membrane channels(inactive)
membrane carriers(inactive)
membrane pumps (active)
174
Difusion
random movement of molecules down concentration gradient
