FUNCTIONALISM

Question 1

BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

What does this means? How is Parsons involved?

Answer 1

Functionalists see society as working as a system. Parsons acknowledges three similarities between the biological organism and society.

Question 2

BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

Systems organisms

Answer 2

Both society and the human are both self-regulating systems and interdependent parts that integrate together. Within the body, these parts are the organs, cells etc. Within society, the parts of the ‘body’, are institutions such as the family and education system.

Question 3

BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

System needs

Answer 3

Organisms have needs and necessities such as nutrition. If the organism does not have access to these needs, the organism will die. Functionalists see the social system as needing basic requirements for it to survive. E.g., members HAVE to be socialised if society is to progress.

Question 4

BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY

Functions

Answer 4

The function of any segment of system is to fulfil its needs and ensuring its survival. E.g., the circulatory system and the body carry nutrients and oxygen to the tissues. Similarly, the economy helps maintain the social system by meeting the need for shelter.

Question 5

VALUE CONSENSUS + SOCIAL ORDER

What is value consensus and why is Parsons passionate about it?

Answer 5

Parsons believes strongly that social order is effectively achieved through the existence of a shared culture/central value system.

This unity creates a framework that allows individuals to cooperate, as it forces them to behave within certain restrictions of their behaviour and such.

Their goals, for example, are outlined and solidified.

Agreement of shared values = value consensus

Question 6

VALUE CONSENSUS + SOCIAL ORDER

What is the social order and why is Parsons passionate about it?

Answer 6

Social order is only possible if members within society agree on the norms and values. This agreement of values is known as the value consensus.

Question 7

INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALS - Socialisation + Social control

What is integration?

Answer 7

Value consensus is done to MAKE social order possible. This happens via integration:

This organises them into the system’s needs… e.g., the system has to ensure that people’s materialistic needs are met.

E.g., The consensus includes general value about the need for people to work. To successfully achieve this role, there needs to be a specific set of rules of norms and conduct. Punctuality and organisation are skills that are needed to obtain jobs etc

Question 8

INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALS - Socialisation + Social control

What two mechanisms does Parsons believe are used to ensure individuals conform to shared norms?

Answer 8

Socialisation and social control

Question 9

INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALS - Socialisation + Social control

Socialisation

Answer 9

This is the process that ensures individuals are taught what the system requires of them.

Through this process, individuals are able to internalise the system’s norms and values so that society becomes a part of their personality.

There are multiple agencies of socialisation… the family, education, religion, media, and so on. These institutions all contribute to the socialisation process at different stages.

Question 10

INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALS - Socialisation + Social control

Social control

Answer 10

Sanctions are dished out, to either reward conformity, whilst negative ones often punish deviance.

An example of this can be seen through the institution of education – the system stresses individual achievement. Those who conform get successful academic degrees, while those who drop out are stigmatised as layabouts.

Question 11

INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALS - Socialisation + Social control

Cooperation

Answer 11

The integration of individuals ensures that everyone is in consensus with the shared value system, which means that consequently, their behaviour is oriented towards pursuing society’s shared goals, and meeting it’s needs.

As a result, everyone’s behaviour will be predictable and will allow cooperation. This integration makes social order possible

Question 12

SOCIAL SYSTEM

1. Individual actions

Answer 12

This is as the botton of the building block system

Question 13

SOCIAL SYSTEM

2. Norms and values

Answer 13

Secondly, our actions are orchestrated by the norms and values we are taught

Question 14

SOCIAL SYSTEM

3. Status-roles

Answer 14

These norms are apparant through state-roles

Statuses are positions that exist in a given social system e.g., a teacher.

These roles are essentially clusters of norms that tell us how people who have certain statuses must behave.

E.g., teachers must not show favouritism.

Question 15

SOCIAL SYSTEM

4. Institutions

Answer 15

Status roles build up institutions - the education system is an institution that has status roles:

Teachers, headmasters, students.

Question 16

SOCIAL SYSTEM

5. Sub-system

Answer 16

Related institutions are grouped into sub-systems, who then contribute to a social system in its entirety.

Question 17

SYSTEM’S NEEDS - AGIL

Adaptation

Answer 17

The social system meets the material needs (done so through the economic sub-system

Question 18

SYSTEM’S NEEDS - AGIL

Goal attainment

Answer 18

Society needs to set goals and allocate the resources to achieve them… the political sub-system does this through Parliament and the Executive.

Question 19

SYSTEM’S NEEDS - AGIL

Integration

Answer 19

Different parts of the system must integrate to ensure everyone has the shared goal… done through the sub-system of media and religion and education.

Question 20

SYSTEM’S NEEDS - AGIL

Latency

Answer 20

Processes that maintain society through time… kinship sub-system or the family does this through maintenance (socialisation which teaches individuals their roles). They also do this through tension management (stabilisation of adult personalities)

Question 21

SYSTEM’S NEEDS - AGIL

Which ones are expressive needs and which ones are instrumental needs?

Answer 21

Parsons believes that ADAPTATION and GOAL ATTAINMENT are instrumental needs – these are means to an end.

INTEGRATION and LATENCY are expressive needs – they involve the channelling of emotions.

Question 22

TYPES OF SOCIETY

Parson’s acknowledgement of two types of society:

Answer 22

1. Traditional
2. Modern

Each society has its typical pattern of norms (variables A + B)

Question 23

TYPES OF SOCIETY

Traditional V Modern
status

Answer 23

Trad: Ascription - status is based on fixed characteristics such as gender.

Mod: Achievement - status is based on performance such as effort in education etc.

Question 24

TYPES OF SOCIETY

Traditional V Modern
relationships

Answer 24

Trad: Diffuseness - relationships are broad with a range of purposes e.g., family farms

Mod: Speficificty - relationships are narrow and limited to specific purposes

Question 25

TYPES OF SOCIETY

Traditional V Modern
norms

Answer 25

Trad: Particularlism - norms emphasise treating different people differently.

Mod: Universalism - norms emphasise everyone being treated the same.

Question 26

TYPES OF SOCIETY

Traditional V Modern
gratification

Answer 26

Trad: Affectivity - immediate gratification of desires

Mod: Affective neutrality - deferred gratification

Question 27

TYPES OF SOCIETY

Traditional V Modern
interests

Answer 27

Trad: Collective orientation - putting the group interests first.

Mod: Self orientation - individualism, pursuing self-interest

Question 28

SOCIAL CHANGE

Transition

Answer 28

The transition between the traditional society and the modern society happens through social change. Parsons acknowledges that change is gradual and is an evolutionary process of structural differentiation.

Question 29

SOCIAL CHANGE

Parsons and applying the organic analogy to social change

Answer 29

The organic analogy has emphasis here as organisms have evolved from simple structures (bacteria) to the complex organisms (humans), with numerous variations of cells and organs – all performing specialised functions. Societies do this also… in traditional societies, a single institution performed numerous functions (e.g., the family). It traditionally organised consumption and production (ADAPTATION) and provided political leadership (GOAL ATTAINMENT) etc

Question 30

SOCIAL CHANGE

Structural Differentiation

Answer 30

As we develop and progressed, the kinship system lost its functions… political parties, factories, schools, and churches all took over their roles. Parsons labels this structural differentiation – a process by which separate, functionally specialised institutions develop, meeting different needs.

Question 31

SOCIAL CHANGE

Moving Equillibrium

Answer 31

Parsons particularly believes that this change happens through a moving equilibrium – one change happens in the system? Compensatory changes happen elsewhere

E.g., rise of industry = change from extended nuclear family to just nuclear.

Question 32

MERTON’S INTERNAL CRITIQUE OF FUNCTIONALISM

Indispensability

Answer 32

Parsons assumes that everything within the society (family, religion etc.) is functionally absolutely necessary in its existing form.

Merton, rather, believes that this is an untested assumption – he points to functional alternatives. E.g., Parsons believes that primary socialisation is best performed by the nuclear family, but communes or the reconstituted family may perform it better.

Question 33

MERTON’S INTERNAL CRITIQUE OF FUNCTIONALISM

Functional unity

Answer 33

Parsons assumes that every part of society is integrated into a singular entity, and that each party is functional for the rest.

Similarly, he believes that change in one part leads to change in other areas. Neither of these assumptions may be true, as our complex modern society has numerous parts – some parts may only be distantly related to each other. We may actually have functional autonomy, not unity, from others – it may be hard to see the connections between banking and netball etc.

Question 34

MERTON’S INTERNAL CRITIQUE OF FUNCTIONALISM

Universal functionalism

Answer 34

Parsons believes that everything in society is positive and performs a positive function for wider society.

However, functionality may actually be dysfunctional for others. Dysfunction introduces a neglected note into functionalism, by suggesting that there are conflicts of interests, and that people of power can keep the arrangements that benefit them regardless of the issues that it causes other groups. We cannot assume, like Parsons does, that society is smooth-running

Question 35

MERTON’S INTERNAL CRITIQUE OF FUNCTIONALISM

Manifest and Latent functions - what are they?

Answer 35

Merton uses the example of the Hopi Indians, who, when there was a drought, performed a rain-dance with the aim of producing rain.

This is its manifest function (intended function).

The ritual may have a LATENT function - an unintended positive consequence

Merton’s distinction outlines how there are hidden connections between social phenomena.

Question 36

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Logical criticisims - Teleology

Answer 36

Teleology refers to the idea that things exist because of their function.

Functionalists’ ideas that the family exists because it socialises children is teleological.

Critics are quick to address how the accurate explanation of something is one that addresses the cause of something. Cause comes before effect – functionalism, however, explains the existence of something (the family) by its effect (socialisation).

Question 37

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Logical criticisms - lack of science

Answer 37

Functionalists are criticised for the lack of science – theories are only scientific if they are tested. Functionalists, for example, view deviance as dysfunctional, and functional. If something is two things at once, it cannot be disproved.

Question 38

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Conflict perspective - marxists

Answer 38

Marxists, for example, criticise Functionalists for disregarding the explanations of change and conflict. This roots from the organic analogy, which states that all organisms are harmonious.

Marxists argue that society is not a harmonious whole. They would argue that it is rooted in exploitation etc.

They believe that their shared values are concealing the interests of the dominating class.

Conflict theorists believe that the conservative nature of functionalism legitimates the status quo and focuses on harmony and stability – not conflict and change

Question 39

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Conflict perspective - justifying the social order

Answer 39

The assumptions of universal functionalism and indispensability all justify the social order, making social mobility even more difficult. This helps the most powerful groups from losing their privileged position… they have the most to lose from change in social structure.

Question 40

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Action perspective - Dennis Wrong and determinism

Answer 40

Dennis Wrong criticises the functionalist perspective and describes it as too deterministic and over-socialised.

He believes that the functionalist view means that individuals have no free will or choice, as they are puppets who are being pulled by the system.

Question 41

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Action perspective - What do they believe?

Answer 41

The action perspective believes that individuals create society with their actions, and their actions are NOT created by the society. Action theory approaches society by suggesting it is not a thing with its own independent existence over and above individuals, but rather society is the social reality that individuals actively construct through meaning.

Question 42

EXTERNAL CRITIQUES

Postmodernism - diversity + instability

Answer 42

They argue that functionalism makes the assumption that society is stable and in order.

It does not account for diversity and the growing instability – functionalism, from the postmodernist perspective, is a meta-narrative that tries to model society as a whole.

According to the postmodernist thinking, there is no overall theory that is accurate as society is increasingly fragmented.