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principles of neuroscience & pharmacology > functional neuroanatomy of the brain > Flashcards

functional neuroanatomy of the brain Flashcards

To be able to describe the contributions of the different brain regions to the overall nervous system function To be able to describe some of the major diseases occuring in the different brain regions To be able to list the different drugs used to treat such brain disorders and explain their mechanism of action

1
Q

what does the human brain use 3lbs of tissue for?

A

to process all emotions and solve equations all of these functions occur within the 100bill neuron’s and 10trill neuroglia that comprise the human brain

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2
Q

why are the frontal lobes expanded?

A

because they are associated with higher executive functions such as self control, planning,reasoning and abstract thought

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3
Q

state the 4 roles of the cerebral cortex

A

-to receive sensory info
-sends messages to move skeletal muscles
-integrates incoming and outgoing nerve impulses
-peforms activities such as thinking, learning and remembering

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4
Q

cerebral cortex vs cerebrum

A

the outer layer of the brain that lies on the top of our cerebrum and the cerebrum is the largest part of our brain

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5
Q

what is the cerebral cortex?

A

the seat of intelligence as because of neutrons in the cortex we are able to read,write,speak and remember

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6
Q

what does the cerebrum consist of?

A

an outer cerebral cortex which is the internal region of white and grey matter nuclei deep within the white matter

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7
Q

what happens during the embryonic developments of the cerebral cortex?

A

the grey matter of the brain develops faster than the white matter because the cortical region rolls and folds on itself and during the growth process convulsions and grooves are created in the cortex

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8
Q

what are the folds in the cortex called?

A

the folds are called gyri,the deepest ones are known as fissures, the shallower grooves between the folds are called sulci

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9
Q

why does the cerebral cortex have subdivisions?

A

-the cortex receives info from different parts of the brain and from the environment and this info is processed in different regions of the brain
-the different regions then send commands to different brain regions, muscle groups or sensory organs

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10
Q

state the different parts of the cerebral cortex

A

-The 1o visual area which is located at the posterior tip of the occipital lobe mainly on the medial surface
-The 1o gustatory area which is located just inferior to the 1o somatosensory area
-The 1o auditory area which is in the superior part of the temporal lobe
-The 1o olfactory area which is in the inferomedial temporal lobe

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11
Q

what is the basal nuclei?

A

-the basal nuclei are conspicuous centres of cell bodies deep in the cortex

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12
Q

what is the role of the basal nuclei?

A

-there are 3 basal nuclei which help to initiate abdominal terminate movements, suppress unwanted movements and regulate muscle tone
-the basal nuclei also controls subconscious contractions of skeletal muscles such as automatic arm swings

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13
Q

what neurones are found in the cerebral cortex?

A

-pyramidal neurons
-inhibitory interneurons
there are also apical dendrites found which form multiple branches
-networks of connected excitatory pyramidal neurones and inhibitory interneurons are fine-tuned to regulate cortical function

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14
Q

what is the limbic system?

A

a ring of structures on the inner border of the cerebrum and floor of the diencephalon that encircles the upper part of the brain stem
-it does not represent any one part of the braun but is more of a functional system composed of part of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon and midbrain

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15
Q

what are the main regions of the limbic system?

A

-amygdala
-hippocampus
-cingulate gyrus
-fornix

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16
Q

what is the function of the limbic system?

A

it is sometimes called the emotional brain because it plays a primary role in promoting a range of emotions such as pleasure, pain,affection and fear
-together with the cerebrum the limbic system also functions under memory

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17
Q

state the diseases of the cerebral cortex

A

-alzheimers disease(AD)/dementia
-seizures and epilepsy
-schizophrenia
-cerebrovascular accidents (stroke)

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18
Q

what happens in the brain of someone with Alzheimer’s disease?

A

-the cortex shrivels up, damaging areas involved in thinking, planning and remembering
-ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid and grow larger
-the hippocampus shrinks severely

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19
Q

what happens to cognition in people with AD?

A

cognition is affected which affects mental processes such as memory,producing and understanding language, solving problems and making decisions

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20
Q

what can AD eventually lead to?

A

dementia which results in a loss of cognitive ability

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21
Q

what type of disease is AD?

A

AD is a neurodegenerative disease and it can lead to neuronal death (neurodegeneration)

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22
Q

what happens in neurodegeneration?

A

neuronal death occurs in specific brain regions e.g the hippocampus and the basal forebrain ad at the end stage the brain shows dramatic shrinkage, there is no cure or successful therapy

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23
Q

what are the pathological features of AD?

A

-there is a loss of neurones particularly this that produce acetylcholine
-threre is extracellular amyloid plaques, consisting of deposits of B-amyloid proteins known as Aβ
-there are intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles, comprising filaments of a phosphorylated form of a microtubule-associated protein (Tau)
-it is unsure as to whether Aβ and Tau are the cause of the disease or a result of the disease

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24
Q

what are the current therapeutic options for AD?

A

-to replace acetylcholine by giving drugs that prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine e.g Ach esterase inhibitors there is also donepezil,galantamine and rivastigmine
-strategies to target b-amyloid have failed so far

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25
Q

what are seizures?

A

a condition that results in large groups of neutrons being active together or in synchrony and discharging in high frequency patters which never occur during normal behaviour

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26
Q

what is epilepsy?

A

condition associated with the repeated occurrence of seizures

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27
Q

what are the causes of seizures/epilepsy?

A

tumours,trauma,infection,vascular disease

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28
Q

what are the different types of epilepsy?

A

generalised-where the entire cerebral cortex is affected, there is complete behaviour disruption and consciousness loss
partial-there is abnormal sensation or aura in the circumscribed cortex area
absence-there is less than 30secs generalised

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29
Q

what are the main epileptic drugs that are in current use?

A

-carbamazepine
-phenytoin
-valproate
-ethosuximide
-benzodiazepines
if these drugs do not work there needs to be a surgical resection of the affected part of the cortex

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30
Q

what are the 3 main mechanisms current anti epileptic drugs are thought to act by?

A

-reducing electrical excitability of cell membranes, mainly through the use of a dependant block of sodium channels
-enhancing GABA-mediated synaptic inhibition, this may be done by an enhanced postsynaptic action of GABA by inhibiting GABA transaminase or inhibiting GABA uptake into neurone and glial cells
-inhibiting T-type calcium channels (is important in controlling the absence of seizures)

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31
Q

what mechanisms to newer anti epileptic drugs act by?

A

newer anti epileptic drugs act by other mechanisms and drugs that block ionotropic glutamate receptors are effective in animal models but are unstable for clinical use

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32
Q

what is schizophrenia (SZ)?

A

-condition characterised by a loss of contact with reality and a disruptions of thought, perception,mood and movement it is a type of psychosis and has positive and negative symptoms

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33
Q

what are the drugs that SZ is treated by classed as?

A

-antipsychotics they are also known as neuroleptic drugs or anti-schizophrenic drugs

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34
Q

how do antipsychotic drugs for SZ work?

A

-they are predominantly dopamine receptor antagonists e.g drugs like Haloperidol
-they can also act on other targets e.g (5-HT) receptors and this involves drugs such as clozapine
-these drugs do have side effects and issues with their efficacy

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35
Q

define pathophysiology…

A

the disordered physiological processes associated with disease or injury.

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36
Q

describe the pathophysiology of SZ

A

-deficits in cognitive processes mediated by the circuitry of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)
-alterations in dopamine,glutamate and GABA neurotransmission are also implicated

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37
Q

what are the positive symptoms of SZ?

A

-delusions
-hallucinations
-disorganised speech
-grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour

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38
Q

what are the negative symptoms of SZ?

A

-reduced expression or emotion
-poverty of speech
-difficulty in initiating goal-directed movements
-cognitive/memory impairment

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39
Q

what are cerebrovascular accidents (CVA)/stroke?

A

CVA/stroke is a sudden and severe loss of central nervous system function due to decreased blood flow to part of the brain
-damage to part of the brain is caused by interruption to its blood supply or leakage of blood outside of the vessel walls

40
Q

what does the functional consequence of CVA dependent on?

A

the part of the brain the CVA occurs

41
Q

what are the ways to manage stroke?

A

-thrombolytic-a tissue plasminogen activator(altepase)
-anticoagulants (e.g heparin, warfarin)
-antiplatelet therapy(e.g aspirin or clopidogrel)
-hypertension treatment(with thiazide diuretic or ACE inhibitors0
-treatment of hyperlipidemia-statins

42
Q

where is the diencephalon?

A

near the midline of the brain,above the midbrain it contains thalamic structures

43
Q

what is the function of the thalamus

A

-a relay station for all sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex except smell,(belongs to the hypothalamus)
-pain,temp,touch and pressure are all relayed to the thalamus en route to the higher centres of the cerebral cortex, all of these peripheral sensations are processed in the thalamus in conjunction with their attendant memories and the emotions they evoke

44
Q

what is the hypothalamus?

A

-it is below the thalamus and is a collection of neurochemically distant nuclei
-it uses neurochemicals and hormones to maintain homeostasis

45
Q

what ihomeostatic functions does the hypothalamus control?

A

-The autonomic nervous system (ANS)
-Coordinates between NS and endocrine systems
-Controls body tem (measured by blood flowing through it)
-It regulates hunger/thirst and feeling of satiety(satisfaction,sufficiency)
-It assists with the internal circadian clock by regulating biological activity

46
Q

what is the brain stem?

A

-a group of anatomical components considered collectively and is made up of the midbrain, pons and the medulla oblongata
-is superior to but continuous with the spinal cord

47
Q

where is the medulla oblongata?

A

he medulla begins at the inferior border of the pins and extends to the foramen magnum (~3cm).It contains all ascending and descending tracts extending between the spinal cord and cerebrum

48
Q

what is the function of the medulla oblongata?

A

-contains nuclei which are regulators for various vital body functions such as
-The cardiovascular centre-which controls the rate and force of heartbeat and the diameter of blood vessels
-The respiratory rhythmicity centre-whichcontrols the rate and rhythm of breathing
-The vomiting,coughing,and sneezing centres

49
Q

where does the nuclei with 5/12 cranial nerves originate?

A

in the medulla

50
Q

what are the two external bulges of the medulla?

A

-they are called the pyramids and they are formed by the largest motor tracts

51
Q

what is the decussation of pyramids?

A

-where axons from the left pyramid cross over to the right and axons on the right cross over to the left (decussation of pyramids)-so that the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side muscles while the right hemisphere controls the left side

52
Q

where is the pons?

A

-the pons lies directly above the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum (2.5cm) and it acts as a bridge connecting the spinal cord with the brain and parts of the brain with each other

53
Q

what does the pons do?

A

-together with the medulla,areas in the pons help control breathing(inhalation & exhalation)
-the pontine respiratory group is normally inactive during quiet breathing and this group of neurons acts like an off-switch to terminate medullary inspiratory activity

54
Q

where is the midbrain?

A

-extends from the pons to the diencephalon
-the cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain connecting the 3rd ventricle above with the 4th ventricles below (both locations of the CSF formation and circulation)

55
Q

state the other nuclei the midbrain contains…

A

-Substantia nigra(dopamine expressing neurons)
-Raphe nuclei (serotonin expressing neurons)
-Locus coeruleus (noradrenaline expressing neurons)
-Pedunculopontine nucleus (acetylcholine expressing neurons

56
Q

what does the substantia nigra do?

A

it is neurons that release dopamine,extending from the substantia nigra and help to control subconscious muscle activities,loss of these neurons is associated with Parkinson’s disease

57
Q

what is the reticular formation?

A

a netlike arrangement of neuronal cell bodies and small bundles of myelinated axons in most of the brain stem
-the ascending portion of this network is called the reticular activating system (RAS) and consists of sensory axons that project to the cerebral cortex

58
Q

what does the RAS do?

A

-the RAS functions to maintain consciousness,a state of wakefulness in which an individual is full alert,aware and oriented,inactivation of the RAS produces sleep,a state of partial consciousness from which an individual can be aroused
-it also prevents sensory overload by filtering out insignificant information

59
Q

what is the cerebellum?

A

-a little brain, second largest part of the brain and lies inferior to the cerebrum and posterior to the brain stem

60
Q

what is the neuron within the cerebellum?

A

the purkinje neuron

61
Q

what is the role of the cerebellum?

A

-the cerebellum is important for unconscious motor coordination,emerging function such as cognition and emotion,it plays a part in conditions such as autism and ataxia,it is an important target for alcohol

62
Q

what are the diffuse modulatory systems of the brain?

A

-4 systems with common principles
-they are a small set of neurons at the core
-they arise from the brain system
-one neuron influences the other
-the synopsis release transmitter molecules into the extracellular fluid

63
Q

state the 4 diffuse modulatory systems of the brain…

A

-Seratonergic raphe nuclei
-Dopaminergic substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area
-Noradrenergic locus coeruleus
-cholinergic basal forebrain and brainstem complexes

64
Q

what is the raphe?

A

-a collection of 5HT nuclei in the brainstem
-the main nuclei is the dorsal raphe (DR)
-axons of 5HT neurons innervate nearly the entire brain to release 5HT which then acts on the serotonergic synapses

65
Q

what are disease associate with raphe dysfunction?

A

mental illnesses such as depression, sleep,disorder and pain

66
Q

how many known 5HT receptors are there in humans?

A

-13,they are divided in to 7 classes (5HT 1-7)
-they are also divided in to subclasses e.g 5HT 1A
-all are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) apart from 5HT3 which is ionotropic

67
Q

what does activation of 5HT GPCRs result in?

A

-neuronal inhibition (5HT1-2) and some result in neuronal excitation 5HT4-7
-the effect of 5HT on a neuron depends on what 5HT receptor is expressed on that neuron

68
Q

what are the drugs acting on 5HT receptors?

A

-Buspirone:gepirone
-sumatriptan and other triptans
-clozapine,risperidone,olanzapine
-odansetron,Graniseterone

69
Q

describe the action and uses of Buspirone and gepirone

A

-partial antagonist at 5HT1A receptors ad are used to treat generalised anxiety disorder (GAD)

70
Q

describe the action and uses of sumatriptan and other triptans

A

they are agonists at 5HT1A receptors and are used to treat migraine headaches

71
Q

describe the action and uses of clozapine,risperidone and olanzapine…

A

they are antagonists at 5HT2A receptors and are also antagonists at dopamine 2 receptors,they are used as antiemetics (drugs that treat nausea and vomiting)

72
Q

what are the drugs acting on the 5HT transporter (SERT) ?

A

-Fenfluramine: stimulate reversible transport of 5HT into the synapse ==> more 5HT in synapse =more 5HT available to act on receptors -also used as an anti-obesity agent
-Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) e.g. Fluoxetine: block the 5HT transporter ➔ more 5HT stays in the synapse-used to treat depression

73
Q

what are the major dopamine(DA) nuclei

A

-substantia nigra (SN0 voluntary movement)
-ventral tegmental area-motivation,cognition,reward
-hypothalamus-control of breast milk production

74
Q

what are the major brain disorder associated with impaired DA regulation

A

-Parkison’s disease (SN DA neurons die)
-Psychosis(Schizophrenia)
-Addiction
-Hormonal disorders

75
Q

describe the DA receptors…

A

-There are 5 receptors in total named:D1,2,3,4,5
-All are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
-They are divided functionally into the D1 family (D1&D5) and the D2 family (D2-3-4)

76
Q

what can DA receptor activation lead to?

A

neuronal excitation or inhibition depending on which G-proteins they are coupled to

77
Q

what are the drugs acting on DA receptors?

A

-L-dopa
-bromocriptine
-haloperidol
-clozapine
-cocaine
-amphetamine
-modafinil & methylphenidate
-MDMA

78
Q

describe the action and uses of L-dopa…

A

-is a precursor to Dopamine, when it enters the CNS, it is converted to DA,the result is increased DA levels in the brain- Used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease

79
Q

describe the action and use of bromocriptine…

A

-D2 agonist-sometimes used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease also used in the treatment of hyperprolactineamia

80
Q

describe the action and use of haloperidol…

A

-D2 agonist used in the treatment of SZ

81
Q

describe the action and use of clozapine…

A

-antagonist at the D4 receptors and is used in the treatment of SZ

82
Q

describe the action and use of cocaine…

A

-inhibits the dopamine transporter (also noradrenaline and dopamine transporters) preventing the removal from the synapse and more DA is available in the synapse

83
Q

describe the action of amphetamine…

A

-increases DA release via the transporter

84
Q

describe the action and uses of modafinil and methylphenidate…

A

-they cause more DA to be available in the synapse and this leads to increased wakefulness and concentration and this can be used for narcolepsy and ADHD

85
Q

what is the action and use of MDMA?

A

-it increases DA,5HT and NA

86
Q

what is the main nucleus for noradrenaline?

A

-the Locus Coeruleus (LC)
-the axons of the LC innervate almost the entire brain to release NA which then acts on noradrenergic receptors

87
Q

what are diseases associated with LC dysfunction?

A

-Impaired cognition and memory (LC neurons die in Alzheimer’s disease)
-Mood disorders e.g depression
-Attention disorders e. ADHD

88
Q

what are the noradrenaline receptors?

A

-Alpha (1-2) & Beta (1-3) adrenergic receptors
-Alphas further divided into sub-classes (Alpha1A,B,D; Alpha2A,B,C).
-All are metabotropic ➔ coupled to different G-proteins

89
Q

why is noradrenergic transmission in the CNS important?

A

it is important for
-the ‘arousal’ system, controlling wakefulness and alertness
- blood pressure regulation
- control of mood (functional deficiency contributing to depression).

90
Q

what are the different drugs associated with noradrenergic transmission?

A

-selective noradrenergic reuptake inhibitors
-mixed noradrenaline serotonin reuptake inhibitors
-psychotropic drugs
-resperpine

91
Q

what do selective noradrenergic reuptake inhibitors
(NRIs) do?

A

-inhibit the NA transporter, this leads to more NA left in the synapse, it is used as antidepressants e.g bupropion,reboxetine,atomoxetine

92
Q

what do mixed noradrenaline-serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SNRIs) do ?

A

-cause more serotonin and NA to be left in the synapse and this means they are used as antidepressants e,g Venlafaxine

93
Q

what do psychotropic drugs do?

A

-partly or mainly act on noradrenergic transmission in the CNS and inc cocaine and amphetamine

94
Q

what does reserpine do?

A

-is a VMAT inhibitor and so depletes the amount of NA in the synaptic vesicles, leads to decreased NA released into the synapse and can be used to induce depression

95
Q

what are the major Ach nuclei in the CNS and what do they do?

A

-the nucleus basal (Basal Nucleus)
-the medial septal nucleus and diagonal band
-they both send axons to the cortex and this is important for arousal,emotion and cognition

96
Q

what is the pedunculopontine nucleus?

A

-located in the brainstem and sends axons to dopamine neurons of the VTA and this is important for reward systems

97
Q

what are the diseases associated with Ach dysfunction?

A

-impaired cognition and memory (cholinergic neurons die in Alzheimer’s disease)
-mood disorders e.g depression
-motor coordination

principles of neuroscience & pharmacology (8 decks)

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