Functional Anatomy Flashcards
What is the basic unit of life?
the cell
What is cell theory?
All cells arise from already existing cells through reproduction
How do cells reproduce?
Cell Division; ordinary cell division is called mitosis
Cell activities are carried out by what?
Organelles
All animal cells have a nucleus except for what?
Mature red blood cells
What is the cell membrane?
The outer layer of an animal cell is the cell membrane
The material in a cell that organelles move around is called what?
Cytoplasm
What is the Mitochondria responsible for?
The organelles responsible for the chemical reactions which supply energy to the cell
What are the four types of tissues?
epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
Epithelial tissue can be found where?
Is found in the skin, lining of hollow organs such as the alimentary canal, the bladder, the uterus; glands are also made up of epithelial tissue
Connective tissue is found where?
bones, tendons, ligaments, and sheets of fibrous tissue; blood is also a connective tissue
Muscular tissue can be found where?
the skeletal muscles, smooth muscles of the alimentary canal, bladder, and the cardiac muscle of the heart
What type of tissue has the capacity to transmit messages?
Nervous tissues
Where can nervous tissue be found?
the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
The Digestive tract is located where?
Abdominal cavity
The alimentary canal is how long?
100ft
the alimentary tract includes what?
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, cecum, small colon, large colon, rectum, anus
Prehension
The grasping of food
Mastication
chewing
How many teeth does a horse have at birth?
24 milk teeth
A full mouthed stallion has how many teeth?
40
Mares have how many teeth?
36
Saliva is produced by three sets of salivary glands, how much do they produce?
10 gallons
What does saliva contain?
It contains the enzyme ptyalin, which converts starch to maltose
How long is the esophagus?
60 inches or about 5ft
What is food known as when it is in the esophagus?
Bolus
What is peristalsis?
Wave-like muscular contractions that aid in digestion
Why can horses not vomit?
They cannot vomit because peristalsis is a one way movement
Food enters the stomach through what?
the cardia
The stomach holds how much?
8-17 quarts
The Gastric Mucosa produces what?
Gastric Juices
What are the two main gastric juices?
Peptic Acid and Hydrochloric acid
Food is known as what in the stomach?
chyme
How does chyme leave?
It leaves the stomach through the pyloric valve
The small intestine is approximately how long?
70ft long with a capacity of 12 gallons
The small intestine consists of three sections?
the Duodenum, the jejunum, the ileum
What is bile?
A blueish green fluid secreted by the liver which aids int he emulsification(breakdown) of fats
What is pancreatic juice?
Produced by the pancreas, and works on carbohydrates
Nutrients in the small intestine are absorbed by what?
Villi, this is normally found in the jejunum of the small intestine
From the cecum the food travels then through what?
Cecum, it is also known as a water gut or blind gut
How long is the cecum and what is the capacity?
4ft long and holds 28-32 quarts
Vitamin B12/ Cobalamin is synthesized where?
Cecum
Where does food move the slowest in the body?
Cecum
Where does food move after the cecum?
Undigested material moves into the remainder of the large intestine
The large intestine is approximately how long?
25ft long and holds approximately 80qts
What are the accessory organs in digestion?
liver, pancreas, teeth, and salivary glands
What is the largest gland in the body?
liver
What are the three salivary glands?
parotid, submaxillary(submandibular), sublingual
What membrane protects the digestive organs?
peritoneum
What is the mesentery?
A double fold of the peritoneum which supports the small intestine
The mesenteric artery supplies blood where?
The small intestine
Describe the process of respiration?
It includes the exchange of gases in individual tissues
The respiratory system is located where?
It is located in the thoracic cavity, commonly called the chest cavity
The respiratory system can be divided into what
upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract
Air is taken through the nostrils then to what?
The nasal passages then through the pharynx then into the larynx
What does the larynx determine?
It determines how much air enters the trachea and lower respiratory tract
What is the trachea commonly called?
windpipe
The trachea is how long?
75-80 centimeters long
Air is filtered by small hairlike projections called what?
Cilia
Inhaling and exhaling is controlled by what?
The diaphragm
What is the normal respiration rate of a resting horse?
10 breaths per minute
What does the circulatory system do?
It uses blood to carry oxygen, food, and water to cells throughout the body
The circulatory consists of what?
blood, veins, arteries, smaller blood vessels, and the heart
What are the four chambers of the heart?
right and left ventricle and the right and left auricles
What is the wall of tissue which divides the heart in half?
Septum
What is the membrane that surrounds the heart?
The pericardium
Blood returns to the heart through what?
Veins
Blood leaves the heart through what?
arteries
The blood enters the heart through what?
Vena Cava
Blood leaves the heart to return to the body through what?
Aorta
What are the four valves of the horse?
tricuspid and the mitral valve
What is the horses normal pulse rate?
36 beats per minute
An abnormally slow heart rate is what?
Bradycardia
An abnormally fast heart rate is called what?
Tachycardia
Blood contains what?
plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Plasma makes up what percent of the blood?
40-50%
Plasma is made up of what?
93% water, 6% protein, 1% mineral salts
red blood cells contains what?
Pigment hemoglobin
What do red blood cells carry?
Oxygen
What are white blood cells also called?
Leucocytes
What cell is part of the immune system, and destroys bacteria and other foreign matter in the bloodstream?
White Blood Cells
What are the five types of leucocytes?
Lymphocytes(non-granular), Monocytes(non-granular), esinophils(granular acidic), basophils(granular alkaline), neutrophils(granular neutral)
How is the loss of blood stopped when a blood vessel is damaged?
the process of clotting
What vitamin is necessary for clotting?
Vitamin K
What does the spleen do?
The spleen destroys old blood cells and stores new ones for release when they are needed
What is bloods path to the heart?
vena cava- right atrium- right ventricle- pulmonary artery- lungs- pulmonary vein- left atrium- left ventricle- aorta- the body
What is the secondary system of transport which removes excess water from tissues?
Lymphatic system
How is lymph fluid moved through out the body?
By the actions of the skeletal muscles
What does the excretory system consist of?
Two kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and urethra
Where is the right kidney located?
Under the last three ribs
Where is the left kidney located?
It is opposites the last rib and is slightly farther back than the right kidney
What connects the kidneys to the urinary bladder?
Ureters
What is the function of the urinary system?
Functions to maintain water and electrolyte balance within the body, as well as to excrete waste products such as urea
The kidneys produce what?
Urine
The urinary bladder stores what?
Urine
How many times does an adult horse urinate in a day?
4-6
What is the nervous system made of?
Nerve cells, or neurons, which carry messages in the form of electro
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS
What does the CNS contain?
The brain and the spinal cord
The brain and the spinal cord are protected by three membranes, or meninges?
The dura mater, the arachnoid mater, the pia mater
The brain and the spine is protected by what?
Brain is protected by the skull and the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae
The brain is how much of the horses body weight?
1%
The three primary segments of the brain?
hind brain, midbrain, fore-brain
The brainstem regulates what?
Breathing
What does the cerebellum control
Movement
What is the pons involved with?
Emotions and Behavior
What is the midbrain responsible for?
sight, smell, and control of hind brain activity
The forebrain contains what?
Pituitary gland
How long is the spinal cord?
6-7 feet
The forty-two pairs of spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to the what?
Peripheral Nerves
What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?
All the nerves in the body
ANS is divided into what?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
The ANS controls what?
Involuntary activity
What is the gap between one neuron and the next called?
Synapse
Bunches of nerve tissue are called what?
Ganglia
The endocrine system is responsible for what?
Secretion of hormones
What are hormones
Body regulating chemicals secreted by glands
How are hormones carried throughout the body?
The bloodstream
What are the two systems of control?
The endocrine system and the nervous system
The pituitary gland is divided into two divisions?
Anterior and Posterior pituitary
What does the anterior pituitary produce?
FSH(follicle stimulating hormone) LH(leutinizing hormone) GH(growth hormone) TSH(thyroid stimulating hormone) ACTH
FSH
causes the development of the follicle in the ovary
LH
causes ovulation
Prolactin
Causes milk secretion
GH
has a general action on metabolism, and aids in growth regulation
TSH
causes the secretion of thyroxine
ACTH
causes the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol
What does the posterior pituitary produce?
oxytocin
Oxytocin
causes uterine contractions
What does the pancreas produce?
Insulin
Insulin
Controls the level of sugar in the blood
The thyroid gland produces what?
thyroxine
Thyroxine
It is involved in metabolic control
Where are the two adrenal glands located?
In front of each kidney
What does the adrenal gland consist of?
Adrenal Cortex and the Adrenal Medulla
What does the Adrenal Cortex produce?
Cortisone
Cortisone
Affects the water content of tissues
What does the adrenal medulla produce
adrenaline
adrenaline
known as the “fight/flight” hormone, increases heart rate and the blood supply to muscles, and also affects sweating
What does the yellow body of the ovary produce?
Progesterone
Progesterone
Causes the changes of diestrus and pregnancy
What does the yellow body follicle of the ovary produce?
Estrogen
Estrogen
Causes estrus, or heat, and associated behavior
What is produced in the uterus?
Prostaglandin and PMSG
Prostaglandin
Stops the secretion of progesterone
PMSG( Pregnant Mare’s Serum Gonadotrophin)
Maintains Pregnancy
The Pineal gland inhibits what?
Sex Drive
Steroid hormones are hormones that have a chemical structure of what?
4 carbon rings
What are some steroid hormones?
Progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, and cortisone
Progesterone is secreted in non-pregnant mares where?
the yellow body of the ovary
Pregnant mares secrete progesterone where?
Placenta
Estrogens are hormones secreted by what
The lining of the follicles in the ovaries
The Cuboni test
It is used to diagnose pregnancy after 120 days, tests for estrogen in the urine
Estrogens include what?
estradiol, estrone sulphate, estrone, equenin, equilinin
What is the horses largest organ?
Skin
What is the skin’s responsible for?
Protection, excretion, temperature control, synthesization of vitamin D, the sense of touch
Where is the skin thinnest and thickest?
thinnest on the face, thickest over the back
What are the skin’s three layers?
epidermis, dermis, subcutis
What are the three layers of the epidermis?
stratum corneum, stratum spinosum, stratum germinativum
What is the stratum corneum
the outer layer of the epidermis, it is made up of dead cells which are shed as dandruff
Where are new epidermal cells made?
the stratum germinativum, by mitosis, or cell division
What does the dermis contain?
vessels, nerves and sweat glands
Nerves in the skin can sense what?
pressure, pain, and temperature
What is the subcutis made up of?
fatty connective tissue, which loosely connects the skin to muscle
What muscle is responsible for shivering?
panniculus muscle which runs beneath the subcutis
What is panniculus also called?
fly twitcher
What are the five senses?
sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch
What are the sense organs?
eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin
What are the horses two visions?
Monocular and Binocular vision
Monocular vision?
The ability to look in different directions with each eye
Binocular vision
The ability to focus both eyes on a single object
What cavity is the eye found in?
Orbital cavity of the skull
The horse has how many eyelids?
three
What glands secrete tears?
The lacrimal glands
What is the conjunctiva?
A thin, pink, moist mucous membrane on the inside of the eyelids which turns into a layer of transparent cells forming part of the cornea in order to cover the front of the eye
What is the cornea?
A thick, tough, and transparent tissue which forms the anterior portion of the eyeball; at the outer edges it is continuous with the sclera
What is the sclera?
The white of the eye
What is the juncture of the cornea and sclera called?
Limbus
What is the iris?
The colored part of the anterior portion of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye
The pupil
The hole in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye
What is the fluid within he eye called?
vitreous humour
The optic nerve
It enters the eye at the back, passes through the sclera, and spreads to help form the retina
What are the three parts of the ear?
outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear
What is the secondary function of the ear?
To maintain equilibrium and inform the brain about the position of the head
What is the erect cartilaginous portion of the ear called
Outer ear or pinna
What does the middle ear consist of?
auditory system, which attaches the outer ear to the eardrum and inner ear
The middle ear is connected to the pharynx by what?
Eustachian tube, allowing for the equalization of air pressure
What are the three bones in the ear?
malleus, incus, and stapes
What is the inner ear also called?
Labyrinth
What is the main cavity of the inner ear?
vestibule
The inner ear consists of a series of membranous tubes which are filled with what fluid?
Endolymph
The inner ear is divided into two what divisions
Cochlea, which is responsible for hearing. Semicirular canals, which are responsible for balance.
What is the olfactory system is responsible for what?
Sense of smell
Wild horses used smell to do what?
Detect and avoid predators, find distant water holes, for reproduction
What do the nasal cavities include?
vomeronasel organs and Jacobsen’s organs, which detect pheromones
Why do horses blow into each others noes when they greet each other?
They are memorizing one another’s scent
Stallions can smell a mare in heat from how far away?
1/2 mile
How is taste detected?
By the tastebuds on the tongue
What are the four tastes that a horse can taste?
sweet, salty, sour, bitter
To get a more precise taste the horse has to what?
the interaction of smell
Bones are made up of what?
bone cells and minerals
What is a bone cell called?
osteocyte
What is most of the mineral matter of bone?
Calcium Phosphate
What are very dense bones called
compact bones
What are the 4 types of bone?
long, short, flat, irregular
Where are long bones called?
found in limbs, and include enlargements at each end for attachment of tendons and ligaments
Short bones include what?
pastern bones and coffin bones
Describe flat bones?
Large surface area, like the scapula and sternum
Irregular bones include what?
Those in vertebral column, and have a large number of projections
Red blood cells are produced where?
In the marrow of the long bones
What is the growth plate of a long bone called?
Epiphysis
The membrane which surrounds and protects a bone is called what?
Periosteum
Tendons connect what?
Muscle to bone
Ligaments connect what?
bone to bone
both tendons and ligaments are made up of what?
Connective Tissue
Articulations or joints are what?
Junctions between bones
What are the four types of joints?
Hinge, ball and socket, gliding, and immovable joints
Which joints do not allow any movement?
Immovable or fixed joints
The sutures in the skull are what joint?
Immovable joints, joining the plates of the skull together
What is an example of a hinge joint?
Fetlock
What are three types of muscles?
smooth, skeletal, and cardiac
Where can cardiac muscle be found?
In the heart
Where can smooth muscle be found?
Found in the alimentary canal, bladder, and other organs
Muscle fibers are surrounded by what?
A thin membrane sheaths called the sarcolemma
The horse has how many bones
Approximately 205 bones
The skull forms what?
Cranial cavity, which holds the brain
What is the eye socket called?
orbit
The lower jaw is called
The mandible
The summit of the occipital crest forms what?
The poll
The first cervical vertebrae is called what?
Atlas
The second cervical vertebrae is called what?
Axis
How many cervical vertebrae are there?
Seven
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
Eighteen
What is the thoracic vertebrae also called?
Dorsal vertebrae
How many lumbar are there?
Six
The ribs protect what?
thoracic cavity
What are the bones of the foreleg?
scapula, humorous, ulna, radius, 7 carpal bones, cannon bone, 2 splint bones, 2 proximal sesamoids, long pastern bone, short pastern bone, coffin bone, navicular bone
What are the 6 joints of the foreleg?
shoulder, elbow, knee, fetlock, pastern, coffin joint
What are the 7 carpal bones?
Pyramidal bone, semilunar bone, radial carpal bone, trapezoid, os magnum, unciform, accessory carpal bone
The cannon bone is called what?
3rd metacarpus
The 1st and 2nd metacarpal bones are what?
Splint Bones
Where are the proximal sesamoids?
the 2 bones on the back of the fetlock
What is the proper name for the long pastern bone?
1st phalanx
What is the proper name for the short pastern bone?
2nd phalanx
The coffin bone is also known as the pedal bone also known as?
3rd phalanx
The navicular bone is also called what?
Distal sesamoid bone
What are the two bones within the hoof?
Navicular and the coffin bone
What are the bones of the hind leg?
pelvis, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, 7 tarsal bones, metatarsal, 2 splint bones, 2 proximal sesamoids, long pastern bone, short pastern bone, coffin bone, navicular bone
What are the three bones of the pelvis?
Ilium, pubis, ischium
What is the largest bone in the body?
Femur
What is the largest sesamoid bone?
patella
How many tarsal bones make up the tarsal?
7
What are the 7 joints in the hind leg?
sacro-iliac, hip, stifle, hock, fetlock, pastern, coffin
What is the membrane covering a bone?
periosteum
What is the membrane covering the heart
pericardium
What is the membrane covering the digestive system?
Peritoneum
What is the membrane covering a cartilage?
Perichondrium
What is the membrane covering the root of a tooth?
Periodontal Membrane
What is the membrane covering the lungs?
Pleura
Caudal
the plane going towards the hindered. The rear portion
Cranial
The plane going towards the head end. The front portion
Distal
Further away from the main part of the body, furthest
Dorsal
Back surface or topline
Lateral
Away from the median plane. It is also the outside or external surface
Medial
Towards the middle of the body. The inner or more internal part
Palmer
The sole of the front hoof continuing up to the back of the knee
Plantar
The sole of the hind hoof continuing up to the back of the hock
Proximal
Closer to the body, or point of attachment
Rostral
Towards the nose
ventral
Underneath or belly side
