French Revolution 1789, Radicalism in the 1790's and Pitt's Reign of Terror

Question 1

Phases in Pitt the Younger’s Administration and Prime Minister

Answer 1

• William Pitt’s fist period as Prime Minister (1783-1801) has been divided into two phases

Question 2

First Phase (1783 - early 1790s)
(part one)

Answer 2

~ Pitt focused on financial and administrative reforms, but he was cautious in the introduction of reform. These reforms helped to stimulate the economy and the period of the early 1780’s to early 1790’s became described as a ‘national revival’.
~ Pitt’s financial, administrative and commercial policies included:
- Smuggling was targeted to curtail the ‘black market’. It was hoped that this would increase legal trade and as a consequence expand the government’s revenue from customs.

Question 3

First Phase (1783 - early 1790s) (part two)

Answer 3

• New indirect taxes were introduced, for example: the graduated window tax.
• Taxes were collected more efficiently.
• The ‘Sinking Fund’ principle was extended as a means of addressing the problem of the national debt.
• Government expenditure was reduced through greater efficiency.
• Pitt created policies which aimed to increase overseas trade adding to customs revenues and confidence in the economy
• These policies appealed to politicians and the commercial interests.

Question 4

Second Phase (c. 1790-1801)

Answer 4

The second phase of Pitt’s administration revolved around the impact of the French Revolution around the impact of the French Revolution, both in Britain and abroad. This has been termed the ‘reign of terror’. During this period, repressive and reactionary policies were implemented as a means of preventing radical and revolutionary activity in Britain, and fighting the war against France.

Question 5

French Revolution 1789 (part one)

Answer 5

A ‘Reign of Terror’

• At first the government used magistrates to suppress radical activity. Landlords’ licences could be withdrawn if pubs hosted radical meetings. By 1793, this policy was felt to be inadequate, so the Home Office was expanded and an Alien Section was were set up. There was no police force at the time so the government made use of spies, informers and agent provocatives to infiltrate radical societies, and there were a series of trials in 1793-4 - the ‘Treason Trials’ - that saw one radical clergyman, Rev. Thomas Palmer, sentenced to seven years’ transportation. These actions led to the break-up of several leading radical groups.
• Next, legislation was introduced to further clampdown on radical activity. In 1794, the act of Habeas Corpus was suspended. Now the authorities could detain suspects for an indefinite period of time, without them having the right to trial. Secondly, the ‘Two Acts’ were rushed through parliament following an attack on the King’s coach in 1795. The ‘Two Acts’ were:
  1. The Treasonable and Seditious Practices Act: widened the scope of the treason laws.
  2. The Seditious Meetings Act: banned meetings of 50 or more people whose object was to petition Parliament or demand reform of the Church or State.

Question 6

French Revolution 1789 (part two)

Answer 6

• In 1799 and 1800 the anti-Combination Laws effectively banned early trade unions - these also removed a peaceful means of protest.
• To add to repression, the government issued a variety of conservative propaganda in the 1790s. The Sun, The Oracle and The True Briton were some of the publications to come flooding forth, hoping to stoke up popular patriotism. After 1793, Britain was at war with France, which encouraged these sentiments further.
• Opinion is divided on the effectiveness of Pitt’s reforms:

Question 7

French Revolution 1789

Answer 7

“The pressure on radicals was remorseless. It matters little that the legislation was not much used. The Two Acts set a example and altered the propertied classes to the potential danger in which the country stood. They increased the pressure on the radical societies, which were in serious decline [by the summer of 1796]” - O’Gorman (1997)

Question 8

French Revolution 1789

Answer 8

“The so-called ‘Reign of Terror’ actually drove much of the radical activity underground rather than stopping it. They feel these revolutionary ‘cells’ were more dangerous as a result.” - Thomis and Holt (1977)

Question 9

How close was Britain to a revolution in the 1790s?

Answer 9

The French Revolution (1789) divided opinion. Some, like the radicals felt that ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ were concepts that free-born Englishmen should cherish too. This view was supported by the Foxite Whigs and leading theories like Thomas Paine. Others regarded the Revolution as an attack on liberty and property rights. The government of Pitt, and the King himself, took this view.

Question 10

Radical Elements and their Demands (part one)

Answer 10

As the working class became more literate, the formation of corresponding societies encouraged them to read and question their position in society. Groups such as the London Corresponding society (LCS) formed in 1792 read works such as Thomas Paine’s, and some of its members believed in change through violence. These societies were composed, mostly, of working class tradesmen and artisans, and were most prevalent in urban areas. However, they could be small or non-existent in large provincial towns, such as Bristol, Hull or Liverpool.

Question 11

Radical Elements and their Demands (part two)

Answer 11

The LCS and the Sheffield Society for Constitutional Information were largest two of their kind. However, neither was very revolutionary in ideas. They wanted reform of the existing system and as such focused on demands like:
- Universal male suffrage
- Annual election
- Redistribution of parliamentary seats following the removal of rotten boroughs.
They could attract thousands to open air meetings, but they did not have a national leadership to exploit this support. Crucially, they failed to use the various food riots and labour disputes at the time for their purposes. This lack of co-ordination with the masses was a major weakness in their operation.

Question 12

Radical Elements and their Demands (part three)

Answer 12

The perceived threat of radicalism intensified by the mid-1790s, as the war with France and the results of bad harvests caused economic distress.

• The King’s coach was attacked in 1795 leading to the ‘Two Acts’ being passed
• Radical members of the navy mutinied at Spithead and the Nore in 1797
• The French attempted an invasion at Pembroke (1797)
• There was unrest in Ireland throughout the period
• Rumours abounded that a ‘Black Lamp’ conspiracy was in motion in Lancashire and West Yorkshire, whereby secret societies there were planning an armed uprising. Whether this was true or not, the ‘Black Lamp’ was widely feared (1800-1802).

Question 13

Radical Elements and their Demands (part four)

Answer 13

• In 1802 an actual seditious activity - the Despard Conspiracy - was uncovered and this was summarily crushed. Despard was a radical colonel who planned to seize buildings and instigate a coup d’etat in London. He was executed, along with 5 others.
  Pitt’s government took a firm stance on this kind of activity, with an unprecedented use of spies to infiltrate radical groups. Spies played a large part in the thwarting of Despard, and the fate of Despard led to a cooling off of revolutionary activity.