Forgetting (1)

Question 1

What are four reasons for forgetting?

Answer 1

• Encoding failures (when information does not get properly stored in memory).
• The decay of a memory trace (a hypothetical, permanent change in the nervous system brought about by memorising something).
• Interference (information no longer being available due to information intrusions).
• Motivated forgetting (intentional forgetting).

Question 2

What does the decay theory propose?

Answer 2

That memory fades due to the mere passage of time, making information less retrievable as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away.

Question 3

What is created when an individual learns something new?

Answer 3

A neurochemical “memory trace”.

Question 4

Between which three necessary stages in the learning and memory process do psychologists distinguish?

Answer 4

Between the encoding, storage, and retrieval stages (Melton, 1963).

Question 5

How is encoding defined?

Answer 5

As the initial learning of information.

Question 6

To what does the term storage refer in relation to learning and memory?

Answer 6

To the maintenance of information over time.

Question 7

To what does the term retrieval refer in relation to learning and memory?

Answer 7

To the ability to access information when it is required.

Question 8

What is the reason for an encoding failure?

Answer 8

Information not being processed deeply enough to be committed to memory in the first place.

Question 9

What does the levels of processing theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) propose?

Answer 9

That the memorability of information depends on the level of its processing.

Question 10

What does shallow processing involve?

Answer 10

Superficial or surface-level encoding of information.

Question 11

On what does shallow processing usually focus, without engaging in meaningful analysis or elaboration?

Answer 11

On sensory features or basic characteristics.

Question 12

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 12

The process of relating new material to information that is already stored through deep processing.

Question 13

What has repeatedly been demonstrated as being an effective way of enhancing recall?

Answer 13

Elaborative rehearsal

Question 14

What is a way to memorise information more effectively and maintain it in your long-term memory?

Answer 14

Elaborative rehearsal

Question 15

Why might information not be encoded?

Answer 15

• Because it is not meaningful or important.
• Because our attention is directed toward other stimuli.

Question 16

What is an example of information that UK participants seem not to find meaningful or important?

Answer 16

The direction in which the Queen faces on a penny (Jones, 1990).

Question 17

What is an example of an encoding failure related to one’s direction of attention?

Answer 17

A study carried out by Bushman and Bonacci in 2002 concluded that viewers remembered fewer television advertisements played during a violent or sexual television programme than they did during a neutral programme.

Question 18

What is a representation of memory trace decay?

Answer 18

Ebbinghaus teaching himself 2000 meaningless letter strings (e.g. “X, E, W”) and plotting how many he could remember over the subsequent few days, and the ensuing ‘forgetting curve’ that he observed.

Question 19

To what does Ebbinghaus’ ‘forgetting curve’ refer?

Answer 19

To many of his memorised letter strings being forgotten very rapidly, followed by a more gradual decline in forgetting.

Question 20

How exactly did Ebbinghaus measure his ability to retain 2000 meaningless letter strings?

Answer 20

He measured the percentage of syllables that he retained (0 - 100%) over the course of a so-called ‘retention interval’ (20 minutes - 31 days).

Question 21

What is trace deca