Forensics - paper 3 Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Basis

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

That characteristics of an offender can be deduced from the characteristics of the offence and the evidence at a crime scene, or from other sources

Question 2

Q

purpose

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

To narrow the field of enquiry to a list of likely suspects

Question 3

Q

Holmes and Holmes (1989) - 3 main goals

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Social and psychological assessment (personality, age, race, sex, employment, education, marital status)
Psychological evaluation of belongings (possessions that could associate offender with crime scene E.G souvenirs/photos ect)
Interviewing suggestions and strategies (once profile is complete the profiler is responsible for developing techniques for the offender once in custody - draw out information)

Question 4

Q

history of top down approach

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Originated at the FBI behavioural science unit in the US (1970s)
Carried out in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers E.G Ted Bundy, Charles Manson
Developed a template which can be used to match evidence from a crime to classify a murder or rapist

Question 5

Q

what is the top down approach

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

The interviews - creation of two offender types
Profilers start with pre-established typology and work down from this in order to assign offenders to a category based on witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene
Organised offenders and disorganised offenders

Question 6

Q

how to do the top down approach

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Stage 1 - data assimilation
Gathering all evidence available including crime scene photos, post mortem results ect
Stage 2 - crime classification
Placing the crime into either the organised or disorganised category
Stage 3 - crime reconstruction
Done in order to develop prediction about the motives and behaviour of offender/victim
Stage 4 - profile generation
Based on all available information, identifying possible characteristics of the offender, including physical appearance and personality

Question 7

Q

Characteristics of crime scene - organised

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Planned
Vitum targeted
Self control shown at scene
Personalised victim
Controlled conversation
Aggressive acts performed before death
Weapon absent from scene
Body hidden from view at scene or removed

Question 8

Q

Characteristics of crime scene - disorganised

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Unplanned
Victim not targeted
Depersonalisation of victim
Conversation avoided
Weapon often present
Body left visible at scene

Question 9

Q

Classification of offender and likely characteristic - organised

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

High intelligence
Socially competent
Usually have a partner/spouse
Skilled occupation
Watches media coverage

Question 10

Q

Classification of offender and likely characteristic - disorganised

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Low intelligence
Socially awkward
Unlikely to be in a relationship
Poor employment history
Little interest in crime on

Question 11

Q

third type of offender

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Douglas eventually added a third offender type in 1992. This was known as the mixed and was added to classify those who don’t easily fit into the two original categories
Incomplete theory - use att A03

Question 12

Q

Key study - canter et al (2004)

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

AIM
to test the reliability of organised and disorganised offender types
METHOD
content analysis on 100 cases of serial killers in the US to see if features of typographies are distinctly different
used the criteria set out by douglas et al (1992) to classify 3 crime in each series as organised or disorganised
RESULTS
Twice as many disorganised as organised crime scene behaviour was identified
Only 2 behaviours co-occurred in organised typographies - body concealed (70%) and sexual activity (75%)
Most other behaviours co-occur regularly in less than half of the crimes committed
Further analysis failed to separate variables into distinctly organised and disorganised
CONCLUSION
No real distinction between organised and disorganised behaviour
All crimes have an organised element
It may be possible to distinguish between serial killers as a function of how they exhibit disorganised aspects of their activities, but probably better to look at individual personality

Question 13

Q

evaluation

offender profiling - top down approach

Answer

A

Potentially very useful in allowing offences to be linked and facilitating predictions about the time-frame of the next attack and how the series of offences is likely to develop
Analysis of offender profiles by snook et al (2007) found that they were based on scientific argument and evidence only minority of the time, judgements are subjective based on often incomplete or ambiguous evidence from a crime
Assumes stable crime type (wilson et al 1997) - most offenders show both types and this shifts from crime to crime
Based on a very small/unusual sample of males, applies to violent sexual crimes - tried to use for other crimes - female serial killers are very different (gender bias) - should only be used for sexually violent crime

Question 14

Q

back ground

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

Sometimes called the british approach
Pioneered by David Canter who objected to the often ‘intuitive’ judgements made by profilers using the top down approach
A data-driven approach that makes use of statistical data on similar crimes that have been committed, in order to make predictions about the characteristics of an offender

Question 15

Q

key ideas - .1. Interpersonal coherence

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

There is a consistency between the way offenders interact with their victims and with others in their everyday lives

Question 16

Q

key ideas - .2. time and place

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

The time and location of an offenders crime will communicate something about their own place of residence/employment
We will also look at this element in more detail when we look at geographical profiling

Question 17

Q

key ideas - .3. criminal career

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

Crimes tend to be committed in similar fashion by offenders and can provide indication of how their criminal activity develops

Question 18

Q

key ideas - .4. forensic awareness

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

Offenders who show an understanding of police investigation are likely to have had previous encounters with the criminal justice system

Question 19

Q

Geographical profiling

offender profiling - bottom up approach - Geographical profiling

Answer

A

Based on principle 2 - time and place
Canter and Young
4 key assumptions - locatedness, systematic crime location choice, centrality and comparative case analysis

Question 20

Q

.1. location

offender profiling - bottom up approach - Geographical profiling

Answer

A

There may be multiple locations involved in any given crime - all of these help to build a picture E.G may have killed and disposed of the body in different places

Question 21

Q

.2. Systematic crime location choice

offender profiling - bottom up approach - Geographical profiling

Answer

A

The assumption is that crime scenes are not random - the offender will likely have some kind of connection/familiarity with the location

Question 22

Q

.3. centrality

offender profiling - bottom up approach - Geographical profiling

Answer

A

Crime scenes tend to cluster
Have two types of offenders - commuters (who travel from home to commit their crimes) and marauders (stay local)
Canter found that 87% of sexual offenders are marauders

Question 23

Q

.4. comparative case analysis

offender profiling - bottom up approach - Geographical profiling

Answer

A

Assumption that the crimes are being committed by the same person, increasing the precision of geographical profiling

Question 24

Q

Considerations

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

Assumes that the target of crime is distributed more or less evenly throughout the space
Works well in cities as everything is all in one space
Rural areas are more spread out
Profiles and maps are easily corrupted/distorted by linking incidents incorrectly
Could minimise by looking at correlation coefficient (0.8) (inter-rater reliability)

Question 25

Q

Investigative psychology (Bottom up and top down)

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

More than just profiling
Attempts to develop our understanding of crime to help solve future crimes, and to contribute to prosecution and defence procedures
Emphasises the gathering of scientific and objective research into patterns in consistency and variability of behaviour of many different types of offender
Creating a ‘database’ to which new crimes can be compared to suggests information about the likely offender
E.G from content analysis Canter has identified 5 variables contribute to all sexual offences but in different patterns for different individuals, meaning we can determine whether 2 or more offences are committed by the same person

Question 26

Q

Key study - David Canter - Railway rapist (John Duffy)

offender profiling - bottom up approach

Answer

A

Aim - To assist police with the capture of the “Railway Rapist”, a violent sex offender who committed a series of assaults between 1982 and 1985 near railway stations in London, which later led to three women being killed
Evidence gathered by the police suggested more than one person was carrying out the attacks and police brought in David Canter to help build a profile of one of them whom they believed to be working alone.
method - Using evidence, Canter put together a profile of the renamed “Railway Killer”. This included both personality and geographical characteristics.
Results - Canter’s profile suggested that this individual had a poor past history with women, violent sexual history, forensic awareness, was in his mid to late twenties and was a semi-skilled labourer
characteristics matched the profile of John Duffy, in that he was 29 years old, was separated from his wife, had been abusive to her during their marriage, had a criminal record and had made efforts to remove evidence of himself from the bodies of his victims and was a carpenter
knowledge of the railway and lived near to the crime scenes
conclusion - Although Canter’s profile wasn’t completely accurate (e.g. he had thought the offender wasn’t physically strong due to the restraints used during the assaults but Duffy was a martial arts instructor), he created a sufficient profile for police to question Duffy and place him under arrest. Sometime after his arrest and imprisonment, Duffy gave up the name of his accomplice David Mulcahy and both are serving life prison terms.

Question 27

Q

(+) Supporting evidence (credibility) + real life application (value or usefulness)

offender profiling - bottom up approach - evaluation

Answer

A

Canters profiling helped to stop John Duffy.
Allowed them to compare the heat map to their list of suspects which led to John Duffy being the only one in that location
It has also been successfully applied to historical cases

Question 28

Q

(+) Can be applied to more than one type of crime

offender profiling - bottom up approach - evaluation

Answer

A

Top down can only be applied to sexually motivated serial killers/killers
Bottom up can be used for all type of crime
This means that it has more use to the police

Question 29

Q

(+) Supporting evidence

offender profiling - bottom up approach - evaluation

Answer

A

Lundrigan and Canter (2001)
Information from 120 murders cases involving serial killers, analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour, especially marauders
Reverse engineer with old cases to help find the killer in the new cases

Question 30

Q

(+) Based heavily on empirical data using statistic and theory, removing intuition of the profiler from the process

offender profiling - bottom up approach - evaluation

Answer

A

More scientific

Question 31

Q

(+) Copson (1995) - surveyed 48 police forces - advice provided by the profiler was useful in 83% of cases,

offender profiling - bottom up approach - evaluation

Answer

A

Less stress on police forces, help them
If all use the same then all help each other
Decrease workload
but only lead to accurate identification in 3%
Shouldn’t rely on it all the time and use other techniques to help

Question 32

Q

A warning from history (can use as evaluation)

offender profiling - bottom up approach - evaluation

Answer

A

The case of Rachel Nickell (1992); 21 year old stabbed 47 times and sexually assaulted on wimbledon common
Police suspects Colin Stagg - a local man who walked his dog on the common and fitted the created profile - media harassed him
Police instigated a ‘honey trap’ - for 5 months an undercover female police officer pursued Stagg, feigning romantic interest and tried to get him to confess
There was no link between Stag and Rachel’s murder; the case was thrown out with a warning to police about their strategy
2008 Robert Napper was convicted, he had originally been ruled out of the enquiry because he was several inches taller than the profile

Question 33

Q

Atavistic form

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending

Answer

A

Made by Lombroso
A biological approach to offender that attributes criminal activity to the fact that offenders are genetic throwbacks or a primitive subspecies ill-suited to conforming to the rules of modern society
Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics
The offender could be identified as being in possession of particular physiological ‘markers’ that were linked to particular offences
Atavistic characteristics, mainly features of the face and head that make offenders different from the rest

Question 34

Q

Cranial (skull) characteristics

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending

Answer

A

Any characteristic of the head and face structure
The atavistic form included a narrow, sloping brow, a strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry

Question 35

Q

Other features

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending

Answer

A

Dark skin, and the existence of extra toes, nipples or fingers
Could also have an insensitivity to pain, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment
Murderers were described blood shot eyes, curly hair and long ears
Sexual deviants had glinting eyes, swollen, fleshy lips and projecting ears
Fraudsters had thin lips and ‘reedy’

Question 36

Q

Lombroso’s research

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending

Answer

A

Examined the facial and cranial features of both living (3839) and dead (383) italian convicts
Concluded that there was an atavistic form
40% of offences were committed by offenders with Atavistic features

Question 37

Q

Supporting evidence - lombroso’s research

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending - evaluation

Answer

A

Confirmation bias
Ethnocentric biased sample
Only experimental group - no control
Not even majority of offences - limited not only explanation
Subjective

Question 38

Q

(-) Socially sensitive research

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending - evaluation

Answer

A

Lombroso states a certain face type which described a black person
This is saying that all black people are criminals
Racist

Question 39

Q

(-) No control group

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending - evaluation

Answer

A

We should see a difference in people who offend and don’t
Bc there is no control group we can’t conclude that criminals show these traits anymore than non criminals
Therefore this does not support that these features link to crime
Only 40% were seen to have these features
That biology can’t be the only reason for committing crime and that there should be another reason

Question 40

Q

(-) contradiciting research

Atavistic form - biological explanation to offending - evaluation

Answer

A

Charles Goring (1913)
Looked at comparisons of 3000 offenders and 3000 non offenders
Concluded that there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics (did find that they had a lower IQ)

Question 41

Q

twin study

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

where researchers look at both MZ and DZ twins in order to look at the influence of genres vs the environment

Question 42

Q

concordance rate

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

the percentage of paris or twins oe other blood relatives who exhibit a particular trait or disorder

Question 43

Q

candidate gene

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

a specific gene codes for a specific trait

Question 44

Q

diathesis stress model

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

when something in the environment causes a gene to express itself

Question 45

Q

early evidence

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Comes from twin studies
Lange 1930
13 MZ and 17 DZ twins, one of each pair had served time
10 out of 13 of the MZ offenders twins was in prison (77%)
2 of the 17 DZ offenders twins was in prison (12%)
Christiansen 1977
> 3500 Danish twin pairs
Concordance rates for offending
Male MZ - 35%
Male DZ - 13%
Female MZ - 21%
Female DZ - 8%

Question 46

Q

Crowe (1972)

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

group of adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record
to a control group adopted children whose biological mother did not have a criminal record
biological mother had a criminal record, 50% of the adopted children also had one by the time they were 18
control group, only 5%

Question 47

Q

Crowe - What do these findings suggest?

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Shows that this is biological , as they commit the crime even when they are in a different environment from their biological mother
Only influence they had to crime was genetic not from nurture
HOWEVER
5% still went on to offend so there must be another explanation as well

Question 48

Q

Mednick et al (1984)

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

More than 13,000 Danish adoptees studied
When neither biological or adoptive parents had convictions, 13.5% of male adoptees had at least 1 court conviction.
When at least one of the biological parents did, 20% of male adoptees had at least 1 court conviction.
When at least one of both the adoptive and biological parents had a conviction, 24.5% of male adoptees had at least 1 court conviction.

Question 49

Q

Mednick et al (1984) - What do these findings suggest?

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

When there was one biological parent with conviction there was 20% offending rate - shows that biology must have a factor
HOWEVER
When both or neither had conviction there was still an offending rate - shows it can’t just be biology
What were the court convictions - lack of control
Adopted parents wouldn’t have committed murder ect as they wouldn’t be allowed to adopt

Question 50

Q

Brunner et al (1993)

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Analysis of a large family in the Netherlands including a number of individuals responsible for crimes such as attempted rape, exhibitionism and arson
Males were found to have a condition now called ‘Brunner syndrome’ (females are carriers only)

Question 51

Q

What is ‘Brunner’s Syndrome’?

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Sex linked condition affecting the production of a gene found on the X chromosome
Results in lower intelligence levels and a deficiency of an enzyme - MAOA
MAOA is involved in control of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin

Question 52

Q

Tihonen et al (2015) ⭐

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Completed a genetic analysis of almost 900 offenders in Finland.
Each criminal was given a profile based on their offences, categorising them into violent or non-violent, and their genotypes obtained.
Revealed two genes associated with violent crime;
The MAOA gene and a variant of cadherin 13

Question 53

Q

Tihonen et al (2015) ⭐-
What did they find?

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Those with the genes were 13 times more likely to have a history of repeated violent behaviour
Those classified as non-violent offenders did not have this genetic profile
The association between genes and previsions behaviour was strongest for the 78 who fitted the ‘extremely violent offender’ profile

Question 54

Q

Why is Tihonen so desperate to emphasise genes as only a risk factor in explaining crime?

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Saying that this gene lead to criminal activity discards the concept of free will
This means that you are a criminal and you can’t be anything
Also lets people blame their crimes on their genes as they don’t have a choice
Screening babies and putting them straight in prison

Question 55

Q

Soharabi (2013)

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

What are the findings linked to provocation?
That MAOA-L individuals showed higher levels of aggression than MAOA-H
What are the findings linked to child maltreatment?
When MAOA-L is combined with child maltreatment, you can predict committing crime
What does it suggest would be the most accurate explanation for violent offending?
Diathesis-stress model for criminality
Diathesis is the MAOA-L / Caherin 13
Stressor is child maltreatment
Used to explain the differences in MZ twins

Question 56

Q

candidate genes

Genetic - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

MAOA
The gene coding for the MAOA enzyme, found on the X chromosome
CDH13 (Cadherin 13)
A risk factor for a risk of ADHD/ADD and frequently comorbid with drug/alcohol abuse
Certain variations are also associated with violence

Question 57

Q

reductionism

Genetic - biological explanation for offending - eval

Answer

A

By reducing the explanation to a genetic level we are being biologically reductionist
Less valid
Can look at causation better though
Simplify and extremely complex theory

Question 58

Q

Deterministic

Genetic - biological explanation for offending - eval

Answer

A

Can’t take only biology
As it leads to wider implications (perceived , arrested , criminal responsibility , justice for victim) (implication for economy)

Question 59

Q

frontal lobe (important)

neural - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Thinking , memory , behaviour and movement

Question 60

Q

neurochemical explanation

neural - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Serotonin
Linked to mood and impulsiveness
Scerbo and Raine
Meta analysis of 29 studies into antisocial behaviour, all showed low serotonin levels
Dopamine
Link to the dopaminergic pathway which results in pleasure (rewarding feeling - desire to repeat behaviour) and to addiction/substance abuse
Feelings of pleasure and motivation
Buitelaar (2003)
Juvenile delinquents given dopamine antagonist (reduce levels) showed decrease in aggressive behaviour
High dopamine = aggressive
Both neurotransmitters are linked to the activity of the MAOA gene but exact mechanism is unclear as L-MAOA should mean high levels of both , not low serotonin

Question 61

Q

Serotonin

neural - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

How it function in someone with a typical level of serotonin
Generally inhibitory (type 2 synapse)
In the frontal areas of the brain serotonin works to inhibit the firing of the amygdala (linked to fear; anger and other emotional responses) - calming effect
Also regulates prefrontal cortex so affects response to external stimuli
How it works in a criminal
Low levels = cant control impulsive/aggressive behaviour or responses in a ‘normal’ way
Can’t anticipate risk - impulsively engage in aggressive behaviour

Question 62

Q

dopamine

neural - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Animals ‘prefer’ instantaneous reward
Serotonin normally moderates dopamine activity to allow rational (long term taken into account) decisions - deferred gratification
Low serotonin → higher levels of dopamine → increased impulsive behaviour

Question 63

Q

Neurophysiological explanation - Raine
four main predictors

neural - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Four main predictors for becoming a violent offender
Poor functional in frontal lobe
Low resting heart rate
Mother smoking/drinking at pregnancy
Implication at birth that lead to brain damage

Question 64

Q

Neurophysiological explanation - Raine
brain imagining

neural - biological explanation for offending

Answer

A

Brain imaging can predict that someone would be a criminal in the next 3-4 years
Reduced volume in the amygdala (emotion region) are 4x more likely to commit a violent offence in the next 3-4 years

Answer 65

A

Neuro-ethical dilemma
Ethical and moral problem
Do we lock the baby up , kill them?
If someone has the predisposition of a criminal , do we lock them up ?
Criminology has taught raine to not forget the social environment and psychology looks at new tools and techniques (brain imaging , molecular genetics)
A violent offender is like a jigsaw puzzle to crime - not one factor that causes violent crime (interactionist)

Answer 66

A

The participants were 41 murderers (2 female) who had been charged with murder or manslaughter and had pled not guilty by reason of insanity
The research used a PET scanning method to highlight areas of the brain activity and these results were compared to an age and gender matched control group

Answer 67

A

They found reduced activity for the offender group in areas such as the prefrontal cortex (and thinning of this) and corpus callosum (the nerve fibres responsible for swift communication between the hemispheres)
Additionally, there were abnormalities in the activity of the limbic system , including the amygdala (18% reduction) and thalamus

Answer 68

A

There is an indication that violent offenders have abnormal brain function when compared to normal controls
As there is largely reduced activity; it would suggests that the brains of offenders are slowed and perhaps unable to make the swift decision to react appropriately in certain situations
E.G the frontal lobes are linked to planning behaviour; therefore, perhaps the decreased prefrontal cortex activity indicates that offenders are unable to consider the consequences of their actions and control their behaviour

Answer 69

A

Murderous brain type - social sensitivity (neuro ethical dilemma)
Causation - don’t know which order it came in
Sample size
Pet scan - invasive (radioactive) however extremely scientific
Ethical - Might not be able to consent as they have pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity
Free will and determinism

Answer 70

A

raine et al
the volume of the prefrontal grey and white matter in the brain of 21 people with ADP compared to control group
used MRI
APD - anti social personality disorder
all 42 had their autonomic activity measured while in stressful situation
a reduced amount of grey matter (11%) was found in the ADP group and they had slow responses
CONCLUSION
low levels of grey matter means they can not regulate their behaviour and solve conflicts (right or wrong)
amygadala can not inhibit the emotional behaviour
autonomic response - no fight or flight - act on impulse
Kandel and freed
Found that individuals with frontal lobe damage had a tendency to exhibit emotional instability , a failure to consider the consequence of their actions , or adapt their behaviour in response to external cues , resulting in antisocial behaviour

Answer 71

A

Raine et al (1997) - above
Potegal et al
Found that stimulating the amygdala of hamsters led to an increase in aggressive behaviour

Answer 72

A

continuum
neuroticism - stability
intorversion - extraversion
psychoticism - sociability

Answer 73

A

Refers to a biological need individuals have for high or low levels of environmental stimulation
Seek excitement and stimulation
And don’t learn from mistakes easily
Have lower levels of arousal which means they seek environmental stimulation to fuel their excitement

Answer 74

A

Refers to the stability of personality and relates to how a persona nervous system is
An individual with low levels of neuroticism have a stable nervous system that doesn’t have changeable reactions
High neuroticism score would represent someone who is more reactive and volatile

Answer 75

A

Psychoticism
Individuals are suggested to have higher levels of testosterone and are unemotional and prime to aggression ]
Sociability

Answer 76

A

high extraversion
high neuroticism

Answer 77

A

Supported by comparing personality scores of a sample of delinquents and non delinquents
Can’t confirm causation - tells us criminal population have a different personality but can’t say that personality causes the criminal behaviour
Especially as there are inconsistencies when some are not present
If complete explanation then it would be the same every time

Answer 78

A

Personality has a biological origin via nervous system we inherit
Linked to an area called the RAS - Reticular activating system
Regulates the stimuli sent to the cerebral cortex, our selective attention centre
Extroverts have an RAS which filters out too much stimuli
Cerebral cortex is underaroused
Arousal satisfied by seeking out thrills aka criminal activity

Answer 79

A

Socialisation process is also important
Criminal behaviour is immature (selfish, about immediate gratification)
During socialisation children are taught to function on delayed gratification
High E and N → difficult to condition → don’t learn to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety → more likely to act that way

Answer 80

A

is personality stable?
context dependant and changes overtime with experience
not a reliable measure
not consitent
also - personality is more complex and doesnt actually predict crime

Answer 81

A

Aim - by studying the answers kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older
Sample - 71 chicago boys aged 10-16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three yearly intervals for 20 years
Method - 2 hour interview based on the ten dilemmas, not about the decision made but the reasons given behind the decision

Answer 82

A

identified 3 distinct levels of moral reasoning;
pre-conventional (9 years old and younger) ,
conventional (most adolescents and adults)
post-conventional (10-15% of adults)
People can only pass through these levels in the order listed
Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage

Answer 83

A

9 years and younger
moral code is shaped by adults who are outside of the individual
stage 1 - obediance/punishment orientation
a child shows good behaviour to avoid punishment
stage 2 - individualism and exchange
child recognises that people have different viewpoints and authorities is not the only one which are right

Answer 84

A

most adolecents and adults
moral standards become internalised and authority is not questioned
stage 3 - good interpersonal relationships
child appears in good order to be seen as a good personal and seek approval
stage 4 - maintaining social order
child shows awarness of societal rules and want to avoid punishment

Answer 85

A

abstract considerations of individual ethics and circumstances
Stage 5 - social contract and rights
individual shows that an undertsanding of the rules dont always allpy and motal decisions arent straightforward
stage 6 - universal ethical principles
individual develops their own set of moral guidlines which may not fit in with the law

Answer 86

A

Moral dilemmas are sensitive/traumatic decisions
Participant harm → aversive → behaviour unnatural

Answer 87

A

Chicago , boys , 72
Culture bias
Gender , androcentric , beta bias
Representative can’t generalise
Lacks population validity

Answer 88

A

Temporal validity
Same 58 participants so participant variables are controlled
ஃ Good internal validity
Structured interview

Answer 89

A

Dilemmas are not relevant to 10-16 year olds
Even many adults it’s not applicable to
Moral dilemmas in an interview - not actually the dilemma
Not seeing realistic choices and behaviours

Answer 90

A

Stages and level of reasoning was decided by Kolberg

Answer 91

A

Criminals are thought to show lower level of reasoning than non-criminals, most likely to be pre-conventional (avoid punishment , gain reward) - Hollin et al 2002

Answer 92

A

kohlberg 1973
Compared violent youths to non-violent youths using moral dilemmas
Violent youths showed lower levels of moral reasoning
Palmer and hollin 1998
Compared moral reasoning in 332 non offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the sociomoral reflection measure short form which contains 11 moral dilemmas
The offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group

Answer 93

A

Different types of offender can show different levels of moral reasoning E.G Thornton and Reid (1982)
Offenders who committed crimes which require some degree of planning such as burglary were more likely to be preconventional
Whilst those who committed crimes such as assault (heat of the moment) were not

Answer 94

A

P; Kohlberg has been criticised for using an all-male sample in the initial development of his theory of moral development. This would mean that his concept of moral development is androcentric (i.e. male orientated) and not generalizable to women.
E; Gilligan (1972) argues that male views of morality are more likely to be law-based and pragmatic, while female views will be influenced by compassion and care.
E; This is important because a female response to Heinz’s dilemma may not be influenced by the same moral reasoning.
L; This means the explanation may not be generalised to all, and thus its link to explaining the behaviour of criminals and their reasoning may be limited to just males.

Answer 95

A

are patterns of negative or exaggerated thought, which can reinforce maladaptive behaviour

Answer 96

A

hostile attribution bias
minimalisation

Answer 97

A

misinterprety actions of others, assuming they are hostile/agressive when they are not

Answer 98

A

presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotional ambiguous facial expressions , when compared to non aggressive matched control group the violent offenders were significantly more likely to view the images as hostile
Can stem from childhood
Schemas - confusing parenting , happy face then hit child

Answer 99

A

showed children a video clip of an ‘ambiguous provocation’ (where the intention was neither clearly hostile nor clearly accidental). Children who had been identified as ‘aggressive’ and ‘rejected’ prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than ‘accepted’ children

Answer 100

A

Eckhart, Barbour and Davidson
Found that men who had committed domestic violence were more likely to display hostile attribution bias than men who were satisfied or distressed with their marriage, further supporting the link between hostile attribution bias and aggressive crime

Answer 101

A

downplay seriousness of an offence
A01 - Barabee - among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all, a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused the victim

Answer 102

A

found that the majority of convicted sex offenders tended to blame the victim and a quarter of the sample interviewed believed that the abuse was a positive thing for the victim, thereby minimalising their involvement

Answer 103

A

completed a meta-analysis of research looking at cognitive distortions and minimalisation in child molesters and rapists.
Cognitive distortions that were significantly detected were minimalsation of
.A) one’s own guilt and deviance,
.B) harm to one’s own victims ,
.C) one’s own need for treatment and
.D) responsibility for one’s sex offences

Answer 104

A

CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking. In the case of offenders, they are encouraged to ‘face up’ to what they have done, and establish a less distorted view of their action
HOWEVER - don’t know it is actually working, as the offender could be lying and reoffend as they want a reduced sentence as they show ‘remorse’

Answer 105

A

Howitt and Sheldon
Questionnaire responses from sexual offenders, non contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact. Those who had a previous history of offender were also more likely to use distortions as justification - not all used in the same way
Can justify as those non contact haven’t “physically harmed the victim”, so don’t feel they have done anything to the victim

Answer 106

A

Another problem is about what these distortions actually tell us. They describe the thoughts that criminals go through after a crime has been committed, but it doesn’t explain how they got there in the first place

Answer 107

A

the moral component of the personality

Answer 108

A

child has not identifed with the same sex parent so has no moral code, becomes selfish and aggressive
this could be due to the absence of the same sex parent

Answer 109

A

child identifies with an immoral parent
freud called this pseudo-heredity

Answer 110

A

identification with a very strict parent leads to excessively punitive superego
this may (unconciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superegos need for punishment

Answer 111

A

An over harsh superego - it can either cause the person to become guilty by nature - unconsciously seek punishment by committing criminal acts to release the anxiety and guilt
Or
By preventing release of anxiety through use of defence mechanisms (from the ego, due to guilt) → overabundance of unresolved conflicts → overhelms the ego → expressed in extreme criminal behaviour

Answer 112

A

Bowlby; the ability to form meaningful social relationships in adulthood was dependent on a close, warm and continuous relationship with the mother in the first few years
Disruption → impaired ability to relate to others, can result in affectionless psychopathy which is linked to criminal behaviour
Evidence - Bowlby’s 44 thieves
Reported that 39% of a group of juvenile delinquents has experienced significant disruption to their attachments , compared to only 5% of a non-delinquent groups

Answer 113

A

Miroslav Goreta - conducted a freudian style analyse on 10 offenders
Each offender experienced unconscious feeling of guilt and the need for self punishment and that this is the consequence of an over harsh superego
The guilt manifests the crime
HOWEVER
If the theory were correct we would expect harsh , punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety
Opposite is true , harsh parenting tends to lead to rebellious children who don’t feel guilt

Answer 114

A

Freud’s assumption is that girls develop a weaker superego than boys because the identification is not as strong
This is because girls dont experience the same high level anxiety from castration anxiety
This means women should be more prone to offending than men
However rates are the opposite in the UK (about 20 x more men)
Alpha bias

Answer 115

A

Bowlby’s theory is only based on an association between maternal deprivation and offending
Hilda Lewis - analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending
Even if there is a link it is not a casual relationship and there are countless other reasons
Growing up in poverty may be a better reason

Answer 116

A

Super ego is all unconscious
How to measure
Less of a science

Answer 117

A

involves a convicted offender spending time in a prison or other closed institution

Answer 118

A

Deterrence - to prevent re offending and demonstrate to society the consequence of similar actions (general (shows society) and individual (stops that individual))
Incapacitation - removing them from society to protect other people (depends on severity of the crime)
Retribution - to show society and the victims family that the offender has been forced to pay for their actions (revenge) (eye for an eye)
Rehabilitation - using education and treatment programmes to change offender behaviour

Answer 119

A

Suicide rates are considerably higher in prisons than in the general public
Constantino et al - 7.5% of women and 6.3% of men in prisons suffer from depression
Ministry of justice - 119 inmates killed themselves in prisons in england and wales in 2016
Prison reform trust (2014) - 25% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms of psychosis

Answer 120

A

Adapting to the norms and routines of prison life make it difficult to adjust to normal life beyond prison
May have an impact on recidivism rates

Answer 121

A

This is the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an ‘inmate code’
Behaviours may be considered unacceptable in the outside world

Answer 122

A

A tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour
In this context, a convicted offender who reoffends , usually repeatedly
In the UK, this is typically 45% within one year of release (ministry of justice)
Reoffending rates vary based on place , time period, crime , age of offender
In the US and austria rates around 60%
In norway, recidivism rates are about 20% - this is thought to be due to less emphasises on incarceration and more rehabilitation and skills development than any other country

Answer 123

A

P - (-) prison does not affect each individual in the same way
Ev - for example, the extent of the effects will depend on the dispositional traits of the convict, the length of their prison sentence, any previous experiences in prisons and the type of prisons in which they served previous sentences (e.g maximum security) and the number/gender of prison officers
Ex - this means custodial sentencing can be more or less effective for certain individuals
L - as a result it should not be viewed as a universally effective method of dealing with all types of offending

Answer 124

A

P - (-) the use and favorability of custodial sentencing may be affected by political motives, as suggested by davies and raymond
Ev - the majority of the public favours custodial sentencing as the main method for feeling with offending behaviour because society typically wants to see the criminal suffer and be remorseful for their actions
Ex - this may lead to some political parties focus on toughening up prisons and prison sentences in an attempt to please the public and appear as tough on crime
L - prisons may be presented as more effective than they are

Answer 125

A

P - (-) negative effect it has on prisoners
Ev - the prison trust reform states around 25% of women and 15% of men report symptoms of psychosis following incarceration
Ex - this supports/demonstrates that prison regimes may be detrimental in inmate psychological health
L - if prisons are having a negative impact on prisoners, it therefore means that they can not be truly effective in achieving their end goals such as rehabilitation, and in fact may be making the issue worse
Counter E - the prison trust reform did not state how many prisoners has psychosis before entering prison
Ex - this means you can’t say that prison caused the psychosis

Answer 126

A

P - (+) the prisoners are surrounded by opportunities for learning and training
Ev - sex offenders may partake in compulsory CBT schemes and violent offenders can partake in anger management schemes, whilst others may opt for token economy systems
Ex - this helps reduce the effects of their minimisation ( a type of cognitive distortion) and so reduce the likelihood of recidivism and can also be undertaken for a more lenient prison sentence
L - useful method of dealing with offending behaviour

Answer 127

A

Classical conditioning - learning through association
Operant conditioning - learning through consequence
Positive reinforcement - giving something good to encourage behaviour
Negative reinforcement - taking something bad to encourage behaviour
Positive punishment - giving something bad to discourage behaviour
Negative punishment - taking something good away to discourage behaviour

Answer 128

A

secondary reinforcer to encourage behaviour
Token economy are used to encourage desirable behaviour within a prison
Additionally punishments are used in behaviour modification
Tokens are secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for the reward itself

Answer 129

A

Operationalise target behaviours - break down into component parts
Scoring system - how much is each behaviour worth? Behaviours are hierarchical
Train staff - standardise the procedure

Answer 130

A

Bullingdon prison incentive and earned privileges
All prisoners are expected to work by law for 5/6 days per week - payed £8 a day
All prisoners need to pas english and maths test before they can get a job - if fail go to education classes
Operate basics, standard and enhanced levels in prison - each level come with its own benefits increases as you go
Inmates start at standard, if they misbehave they lose privileges like visitation time, exercise time , work , tv and socialisation time
If they behave well, they can jump up to enhanced where they gain gym time, additional money for the canteen, ability to apply for high paid jobs

Answer 131

A

125 adolescent males (12-15yrs)(IQs ranged from 50-137)
Reside in 5 independent cottages with 2 of them being comparison control ones
Focused on changing their social behaviour with other inmates and following rules
Boys knew staff were keeping record
Data collected over 14 months
Cottage A - 66% to 91.6%
Cottage B - 46.7% to 80.8%
Cottage C - 73.2% to 94.2%
No difference in comparison cottages

Answer 132

A

Found that a group of young offenders who had experienced token economy were less likely to reoffend 1-2 years later compared to a control group
However when followed up 3 years later , reoffending rates were the same for both groups
Suggesting the impact of token economy reduces over time

Answer 133

A

Benefits of token economy were lost when staff applied the rules inconsistently due to a lack of training or high staff turnover

Answer 134

A

The rewards and frequency of these rewards must be tailored to the individual offenders
Found that in a youth offender setting, prisoners responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and more frequent
However this tailored approach could be difficult to deliver in typical prisons

Answer 135

A

Ev - some argued that same of the supposed reward for good behaviour should be seen as a right and not a reward (phone calls home, or yard time)
Moya and Achtenburg - offenders are not given the option whether they participate in these token economy
This means that there could be implications on how effective the treatment programmes are
Particularly people who share this notion and became skeptical of the tokens

Answer 136

A

Field showed when they were tailored to people that they were more effective
This means that the method is more reliable and effective as it can be modified to other people’s needs and makes them more likely to change their behaviour
Better than anger management which needs more training - less money spent on it
However
Inconsistencies between staff was a big problem - confused prisoners

Answer 137

A

According to Blackburn token economies have little “rehabilitative value” as any positive change may quickly be lost when a prisoner is released
Progress is unlikely to be assured upon release since law abiding behaviour is not rewarded/reinforced on the outside
Rewards the offender receives from breaking the law (such as group status) may be more powerful than abiding by the token economy
Less valuable
(does not fix the problem just makes them better behaviour in the prison and not society)

Answer 138

A

Anger management programmes are forms of cognitive behaviour therapy
Conducted in small groups from around 10 sessions
Consists of 3 stages
.1. Cognitive preparation
.2. Skills acquisition
.3. Application practice

Answer 139

A

Identify situations that provoke anger so they can recognise when an aggressive outbursts may occur
Thought patterns are challenged and offenders are helped to complete cognitive restructuring to retrain their thought processes
Offenders are encouraged to consider negative consequences of their anger on others

Answer 140

A

Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with the triggers more effectively
Cognitive skills - positive self talk
Behavioural skills - assertiveness training to help them communicate more effectively
Physiological skills - methods of relaxation and/or meditation

Answer 141

A

Offenders now practice their skills in new situations
Do role play
The successful response would be met with positive reinforcement

Answer 142

A

Aim - to investigate whether anger management programmes work with a sample of young male offenders
Method - a sample of 50 prisoners complete an anger management course while the control group considered of 37 prisoners who were assessed but did not complete the course
Measure were taken before and after the treatment and included a cognitive behaviour interview focused on their anger
The wing behaviour checklist (WBC) completed by prison officers regarding the angry behaviour displayed by the prisoners in the previous week and the anger management assessment questionnaire
Results - the results were convincingly in favour of the effectiveness of anger management programmes
All who had completed the anger management programme showed a decrease in self reported anger, as well as lower levels of anger reported by the WBC
Conclusion - overall, the results indicate that in the short term instance of ireland’s research, there is a positive evidence to support the use anger management programmes

Answer 143

A

Keen (2000) found that in their study there were initial issues of offenders not taking the course seriously and forgetting their routines.
Some failed to take part fully e.g. forgetting their anger diaries or demonstrating egocentric (self-focused) behaviour during the sessions making things challenging.
This is a problem because it suggests that the programme may only be as effective as the group taking part;
therefore, individuals in a difficult group may not benefit fully.

Answer 144

A

Another criticism of using anger management programmes with violent offenders is that the relationship between anger and violence is complex and hasn’t been extensively researched.
For example, Loza and Loza-Fanous (1999) argue that the research links made between anger and violence are limited because they make use of self-reported explanations of an offenders’ motivations in committing violent crime, which may not be reliable.
This is important, because the prisoner can blame their offending behaviour on anger problems and stop taking responsibility for their actions.
Therefore, anger management programmes could do more harm than good.

Answer 145

A

Changing the emphasis
Rather than focus be on an individual committing crime against the state, it shifts from the needs of the state to the needs of the individual victim
Less about retribution and more about reparation
These may occur pre trial, alongside a sentence, as an alternative or as an incentive to reduce a sentence
Form - Restitution is sometimes monetary, labour based or emotion based, hence restorative conversations

Answer 146

A

.1. The victim of the crime and their recovery
.2. The offender and their rehabilitation

Answer 147

A

.1. Trained mediator supervises the meeting
.2. Non - courtroom setting where offender voluntarily meets victim
.3. Can be face to face or remote video
.4. Victim has to the opportunity to confront the offender
.5. Active involvement of all parties involved
.6. Focus on positive outcome for all parties
.7. Others may be involved to show the wider effects of the crime

Answer 148

A

Latimer et al (2005), who found that RJ was significantly more effective than traditional non restorative approaches in terms of increasing victim and offender satisfaction, restitution compliance and reducing recidivism.

Answer 149

A

Shapland et al (2008) - 7 Year research project found 85% of survivors reported satisfaction with the process of meeting with the offender face to face and 78% would recommend it. 60% said it made them feel better about the incident and gave them closure. 2% said it made them feel worse

Answer 150

A

Van Gijseghem (2003) - offenders may use RJP for different reasons e.g. avoid punishment, play down faults, taking pride in relationship with survivor

Answer 151

A

Wood and Suzuki (2016) - restorative programmes are not as survivor focused as satisfaction surveys report. Survivors are being used as a way of helping rehabilitate the prisoner rather than be helped themselves

Answer 152

A

Strang et al (2013) - meta-analysis of 10 studies. RJP vs those who just had custodial sentencing. RJP were significantly less likely to reoffend