Forensic Psychology Flashcards
What is Forensic Psychology?
-There are many interpretations and definitions for what forensic psychology is and this is mostly because of the Americanism of media portrayals
-It’s important to note that UK practice differs (quite a lot) from American practice
-For instance, criminal profiling is widely utilised in America but is not a ‘trusted’ process in the UK
So how does the BPS describe forensic
psychology:
-The field of assessing criminal behaviour and helping those who have committed crime or have been directly affected by crime.
-However, research in forensic psychology covers a far wider spectrum, such as exploring wellbeing of service providers
What do they do?
-Work with people to address risk factors associated with further offending as well as promoting and developing healthy, prosocial lives contributing to a safer society
-This may also involve exploring and
understanding offending behaviour through the exploration of factors associated with
offending behaviours, such as upbringing/early life experiences
Key tasks of a forensic psychologist:
- Creating case formulations
- Delivering evidence informed psychological interventions
- Supporting the multi-disciplinary teams of
service providers
- Evaluating and recommending changes to
care practices to ensure evidence-based
approaches
Where do they work?
-The biggest recruiter of forensic psychologists in the UK is HMPPS within prisons and youth offending/justice services
-They also work with the NHS in secure
hospitals or hospitals with secure wings (e.g. Broadmoor) or other service providers of secure care, such as St Andrews Healthcare
-They may also be employed by universities
How to become a Forensic Psychologist
-The first step is to complete a BPS
accredited undergraduate degree in psychology (typically at 2:1 and above)
-You would then need a Stage 1 Society Qualification, which is usually in the form of an accredited Master’s degree in Forensic
Psychology
-Stage 2 Qualification, where you would need to source a suitable role to undertake supervised practice. A suitable role is any
employed or voluntary role deemed appropriate by the Qualifications Board
The Health and Care Professions Council
-They outline standards and competencies required for healthcare practitioners in the UK.
For psychologists, competencies include:
- Safe and effective practice within scope of practice
- Practice within legal and ethical boundaries
- Looking after own health and wellbeing, seeking support where necessary
- Practise as an autonomous professional (making professional judgements)
- Recognise impact of culture, equality and diversity on practice (practising in a non-
discriminatory, inclusive manner)
- Maintain Confidentiality
- Communicate Effectively
Societal Theories of Offending Behaviours McGuire (2002)
- Structural Theories:
-Social and economic structures shape criminal behaviour through the manipulation (creation?) of social and economic conditions.
-This creates issues such as poverty,
social inequalities and disorganisation which may create opportunity (necessity?) to engage in criminal behaviour. - Cultural Theories:
-The role of values and norms on offending behaviour.
-Certain beliefs and attitudes may influence behaviours (e.g. glorified violence, material success, immediate gratification etc.) - Integrative Theories:
-Attempt to bring together structural
and cultural factors to form a comprehensive explanation for offending behaviours.
-It argues that such behaviours are the result of complex interplay between social, economic and cultural factors.
Ainsworth (2000) Stages int he process of crime
-Ainsworth (2000) described seven stages to processing crime, addressing public knowledge/awareness of crime
- “Will the victim notice the crime?”
Someone may not recognise or be aware that a crime may have been committed against them.
Someone throwing/hitting you with
something may seem accidental but could be a deliberate assault. - “Will the victim report the crime?”
In some instances, someone may not choose to report the crime to avoid further trauma.
For example, male SA victims may not report the crime as they may be unaware a crime has taken place or out of embarrassment/shame. - “Will the offender be caught by police?”
Police are typically more successful in ‘catching’ suspects of serious crimes where there may be an obvious suspect or a witness
who’s able to identify the offender.
Less ‘serious’ crimes/offences associated with high work-loads would see lower rates of police success and intervention. - “Will the police record the ‘crime’ as such?”
May be a greater willingness to detect and report ‘relevant’ crimes. They may also be unaware/unclear of legal sanctions against particular activities. - “Will the offender be prosecuted?”
If the chances of conviction are low,
police and prosecuting agencies may be reluctant to prosecute.
This may be influenced by the political climate (e.g. if a particular crime is on the rise, more prosecutions may be attempted/made). - “Will the perpetrator be found guilty?”
Some cases may be biased in favour of the accused.
False convictions – is the right person being prosecuted? - “Will the perpetrator receive an
appropriate sentence?”
Will the victim and/or their families see the sentence as appropriate? And for high profile cases that may have the attention of the public, do the public believe an appropriate sentence has been passed.
-These are proposed stages that
inform public awareness and the
occurrence of crime.
Brady’s (2017) Addiction to Crime?
The theory proposed that some criminals may exhibit an “addictive criminal syndrome”, characterised by compulsive patterns of offending behaviour that resembles drug and substance addiction.
Traits:
- Intense and persistent preoccupation with criminal activity
- Difficulty in controlling criminal impulses
- Continuation of criminal behaviour despite consequence
- Tolerance to the thrill/excitement of crime leading to escalation in severity or frequency
- Negative emotional states when unable to engage in criminal activity
- High reoffending rate (relapse) after periods of abstinence
It is suggested that neurological or psychological factors may contribute to compulsive criminal behaviours.
It’s also suggested that institutions should be focussed on addressing these issues through treatments, rather than just punishing offenders
Personality and Crime Eysenck (1980)
Eysenck (1980) devised an individual personality theory model that has been used to explain criminal/offending behaviour consisting of biological and social explanations.
P E N
P = Psychoticism
This trait has been positively correlated with criminality and antisocial conduct in children, youths and adults whether self-confessed or leading to incarceration.
Traits associated with this element:
- Aggressiveness
- Manipulation
- Risk Taking
- Irresponsibility
- Impulsivity
E = Extraversion
-This element has been correlated more with young samples engaging in offending/antisocial behaviour than adults.
-A potential explanation for this had been that adults in prison may not have the opportunity or freedoms to express or demonstrate extraverted behaviour (Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1989)
N = Neuroticism
-This element had not been significantly associated with offending/antisocial behaviours when compared to the other elements (P and E)
-Neuroticism had been explained as a disposition to react too emotionally to stimuli in certain situations
Rehabilitative Approach/Method
Good Lives Model (GLM)
-An approach to rehabilitation informed by positive psychology.
-The purpose of GLM is to support the client in developing more personally meaningful and fulfilling lives whilst adopting a strengths-based approach to work on rehabilitation, as opposed to the more common risk-need-responsivity approach
-The focus is on what the offender does well utilising their existing skills, knowledge or interests to help and encourage them build a life away from offending
The GLM involves:
- Repairing social relationships
- Generative activities (‘challenging’ client’s internal thoughts)
- Building therapeutic alliances
- …and overall exploring the psychological, social and material needs not only associated with offending but also positively impact the client’s quality of life
What causes people to offend?
There is no single psychological reason why people offend,
as offending behaviour can be caused by a wide range of
factors, including biological, social, cognitive and environmental influences.
However, some common psychological reasons why people may offend include:
-Personality Traits
-Cognitive Distortions
-Trauma and abuse
-Substance abuse
-Social and environmental factors
It is important to note that offending behaviour is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that can be influenced by a variety of factors.
Therefore, effective prevention and intervention programs should address multiple risk factors and individual needs to
reduce the likelihood of offending behaviour.
What does personality traits mean?
Some people may have personality traits that make them more likely to offend, such as impulsivity, aggressiveness, low empathy, or a tendency towards risk-taking behaviour.
What does cognitive distortions mean?
Offenders may have cognitive distortions or faulty thinking patterns that justify their offending behaviour, such as believing that their actions are justified or that they won’t get caught.
What does trauma and abuse mean?
Trauma and abuse can lead to psychological distress and maladaptive coping mechanisms that increase the risk of offending behaviour.
What does substance abuse mean?
Substance abuse can impair judgment and decision-making, leading to a higher likelihood of engaging in offending behaviour.
What does social and environmental factors mean?
Social and environmental factors, such as poverty, unemployment, social exclusion, and lack of support networks, can contribute to offending behaviour by creating stress and reducing opportunities for positive social interaction.
What are the risk factors for both intimate partner and sexual violence?
-lower levels of education (perpetration of sexual violence and experience of sexual violence);
-a history of exposure to child maltreatment (perpetration and experience);
-witnessing family violence (perpetration and experience);
-antisocial personality disorder (perpetration);
-harmful use of alcohol (perpetration and experience);
-harmful masculine behaviours, including having multiple partners or attitudes that condone violence (perpetration);
-community norms that privilege or ascribe higher status to men and lower status to women;
-low levels of women’s access to paid employment; and
-low level of gender equality (discriminatory laws, etc.)
What is Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
-Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, proposed several theories
related to offending behaviour.
-According to Freud, offending behaviour is a result of the interaction between the individual’s innate drives and their early life experiences.
-Freud proposed that human beings are driven by two basic instincts: the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos).
-The life instinct is focused on preserving life, while the death instinct is focused on destruction and aggression.
-Freud believed that individuals who experience frustration or repression of their life instincts may turn to the death instinct, resulting in aggressive or destructive behaviour.
-Freud also proposed that early childhood experiences play a critical role in shaping an individual’s personality and behaviour.
-He believed that unresolved conflicts or traumas from early childhood can lead to psychological distress, which can manifest in aggressive or destructive behaviour.
-Freud proposed that the ego, the rational part of the personality, must balance the demands of the id (the instinctual, unconscious part of the personality) and the superego (the internalized moral and
ethical standards of society).
-He suggested that individuals who have weak egos or who are unable to control their impulses may be more likely to engage in offending behaviour.
-Lack of empirical evidence: based on case studies and clinical observations
-Overemphasis on childhood experiences: neglects other important factors like social and environmental influences
-Gender bias: Freud’s views on gender are criticized as sexist and outdated
-Lack of generalizability: based on observations of patients with neurotic disorders
-Simplistic view of aggression: fails to account for the complexity of human behaviour, including biological, social, and cultural influences.
-Non-falsifiable – difficult to prove/disprove
What is Maternal Deprivation (John Bowlby)
-Bowlby’s theory suggests that the absence of a mother or maternal figure during early childhood can lead to aggression and other negative outcomes in adulthood.
-According to Bowlby, the mother-child bond is crucial for healthy emotional
development and the ability to form healthy
relationships in the future.
-Maternal deprivation can lead to a sense of insecurity and anxiety, which can manifest in aggressive behaviour.
Consequences of maternal deprivation
include:
-An inability to form attachments in the
future (see the Internal Working Model)
-Affectionless psychopathy (inability to feel remorse)
-Delinquency (behavioural problems in adolescence)
-Problems with Cognitive Development
Bowlby also suggested that the effects of
maternal deprivation are most pronounced during a critical period of early childhood development, usually before the age of three.
-The long-term effects of maternal deprivation can include difficulties with attachment, emotional regulation, and social interaction, all of which can contribute to aggressive behaviour.
-Bowlby’s theory has been influential in shaping our understanding of the importance of early childhood experiences in emotional development and the potential long-term effects of early childhood trauma.
However..
-Bowlby’s theory of aggression overemphasizes the importance of maternal care and neglects the role of other social and environmental factors.
-The theory is overly simplistic and does not fully account for the complexity of human behaviour.
-The validity of Bowlby’s concept of maternal deprivation has been questioned, as some argue that separation from a mother figure may have less severe effects than he suggested.
-Bowlby’s theory does not consider the role of individual differences, such as temperament and genetic factors, in the development of aggression
-Some researchers argue that Bowlby’s theory is too focused on the individual, failing to account for the impact of broader social and cultural factors on aggression.
-The theory is criticized for being too
deterministic, suggesting that early childhood experiences have an inevitable impact on later development, without considering the possibility of resilience or change.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
-Bandura’s theory suggests that aggression is learned through a process of observation and imitation, rather than being solely the result of biological or environmental factors.
-According to Bandura, individuals learn to
model aggressive behaviour by observing and imitating the behaviour of others,
particularly those who are perceived as
powerful or influential.
-Bandura’s theory also emphasizes the role
of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour.
-Individuals are more likely to imitate
behaviour that is rewarded and less likely
to imitate behaviour that is punished.
-Bandura’s theory of aggression also
includes the concept of self-efficacy, or
the belief in one’s ability to successfully
perform a behaviour.
-Individuals with high self-efficacy for
aggressive behaviour are more likely to
engage in aggressive acts than those with
low self-efficacy.
-Finally, Bandura’s theory also acknowledges the role of individual differences, such as personality and cognitive factors, in the development of aggressive behaviour.
-Bandura’s theory does not fully account for the complexity of human behaviour, including biological and environmental factors that contribute to aggression.
-Some researchers criticize the theory as being too simplistic, failing to consider the role of individual differences, such as personality and cognitive factors, in the development of aggression.
-The theory has been criticized for not
providing a clear explanation of how
aggressive behaviour is learned and maintained over time.
-Some critics argue that the theory places too much emphasis on observation and imitation, neglecting the influence of genetics and environmental factors.
-The theory has also been criticized for
neglecting the role of social and cultural
factors, such as societal norms and values, in shaping aggressive behaviour.
-Critics suggest that the theory places too much emphasis on reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour, neglecting the role of cognitive processes and emotions in the development of aggression.
Cognitive Theory
-Cognitive theorists focus on how people perceive their social environment and learn to solve problems.
-The moral and intellectual development perspective is the branch of cognitive theory that is most associated with the study of crime and violence.
-Cognitive theorists attempt to understand how criminal offenders perceive and mentally represent the world around them (Knepper, 2001).
Moral Reasoning (Lawrence Kohlberg, 1958)
-Kohlberg’s theory is based on the idea that moral reasoning and decision-making are important factors in the development of criminal behaviour.
-According to Kohlberg, individuals progress through stages of moral reasoning, with more advanced stages associated with higher levels of moral development…
-Individuals who engage in criminal behaviour are believed to be stuck in a lower stage of moral reasoning, where their decision-making is driven by self-interest and immediate gratification rather than consideration of the broader social and ethical implications of their actions.
-Kohlberg’s theory suggests that interventions aimed at promoting moral development and increasing moral reasoning skills can be effective in reducing criminal behaviour.
-Critics have argued that Kohlberg’s theory neglects the role of other factors, such as social and economic factors, in the development of criminal behaviour.
-Some have also criticized the theory for being too focused on individual moral reasoning and failing to account for the impact of broader social and cultural norms on moral decision-making.
-Additionally, some have suggested that Kohlberg’s theory places too much emphasis on cognitive factors and neglects the importance of emotional and behavioural factors in the development of criminal behaviour.
Kohlberg’s (1969) proposed dilemma
Heinz’s partner had a rare medical condition. There was one drug that had the
potential to treat Heinz’s partner. The founder of the drug produces it for £200
and sells it for £2000. Heinz asked around for help in acquiring the funds, he only
managed to raise £1000. He explained to the founder that his partner is unwell
and in need of the medicine and made an offer to pay the rest later. The founder
said no. Heinz got desperate and broke into the founder’s store and stole the drug
for his partner. (Kohlberg, 1963, p19)
Kohlberg’s (1969) 3-Stages of Moral Development
1.Pre-conventional level - A child is responsive to rules and labels of good, bad,
right and wrong and associated rewards and punishments
2. Conventional level - Maintenance of expectations of associated groups (family,
friends, nation etc) regardless of consequences. Emphasis on loyalty as opposed to conformity
3. Post-conventional – Individual defines own values and principles regardless of
expectations. Adopt their own universal morals.
Kohlberg suggested that offenders have lower moral reasoning that non-offenders,
but how does moral reasoning attempt to explain offending behaviour?
If punishment can be avoided, offending may be justified
If risk is worth the reward
Offending maintains relationships (familial or peers)
Acts in the interest of society or maintains human rights
Kohlberg suggested that offenders have lower moral reasoning that non-offenders.
Research by Chen and Howitt (2007)
demonstrated this by assessing and
comparing moral reasoning in youth offenders and non-offenders. Offenders had lower levels of development even though the mean age was higher.
Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is simply the assessment of the level of risk an individual poses to repeating offence related behaviours
Risk Factors
Risk factors are factors that may facilitate/influence offending behaviour. There are two types of risk factors: Static (non-changeable e.g. victim of abuse) and Dynamic (changeable e.g. attitudes)
Risk Factors help us understand what may have led someone to offend but are not relied upon to predict first time offences
Examples of risk factors include
- Low cognitive ability (problem solving)
- Low IQ
- Beliefs and attitudes (antisocial)
- Lack of parental involvement (poor supervision)
- High levels of family disruption
- Deviant peer groups
What about…
- Academic performance
- Commitment and attendance at school
- Emotional attachment to family
- Authoritarian upbringing
- Parents education and income
- Social rejection
- Media consumption
- Neighbourhood
- Religion
- Aspirations
Identifying Risk Factors
-Risk factors may not always present themselves in client reports.
-It’s important that a complete case formulation has taken place prior to conducting risk assessments to ensure all relevant details have been noted and considered. This is also an important step in devising risk management and treatment plans.
-You will be presented with some case studies. Read through them and discuss
whether they pose a high or low level of risk to reoffend.
Addressing Risk factors
Protective factors:
-These are factors that may reduce the likelihood of an individual reoffending even
when risk factors present themselves.
-For example, a violent offender who committed an assault following a disagreement would be taught conflict resolution skills.
Recidivism/Reoffending
Defining recidivism:
-The tendency for an offender to commit another offence.
-It is a relapse back into criminal behaviour/thinking.
-The purpose of prisons is to prevent/reduce the occurrence of recidivism, with focus on offence types, through intervention and treatment programmes
Courts
-In the UK, psychologists may be called upon to serve as expert witnesses
on court cases. This role would typically involve the explanation of mental
disorders, in layman’s terms, for the judge and jury (e.g. symptomatic behaviours).
-Forensic psychologists may specifically be called upon to work with individuals directly affected by crime or the legal system (e.g. specialist victim support)
Insanity Plea
-This is a law term and does not directly relate to psychology, though it concerns psychological matters specifically around capacity and diminished responsibility.
-Demonstrating a lack of capacity or diminished responsibility may allow for acquittal of the accused/defendant, postponement of the trial or altered sentencing.
Insanity and diminished responsibility
-In cases of murder, the evidence for insanity or diminished responsibility
is stated by law as:
-“…at the time of the alleged offence he was insane so as not be responsible according to law for his actions; or that at the time he was suffering from such abnormality of the mind…”
Hospitals/secure care
-In some court cases, the sentencing instructs that the defendant be administered to hospital. This may be on a secure ward in a general hospital or in secure forensic care (psychiatric hospital).
-Forensic psychologists may work in both environments working with patients to address risk and offending behaviours.*
-Within hospital, forensic psychologists work closely with clinical psychologist. Mental health needs are managed by the Clin.Psych with offending behaviours being addressed by the For.Psych.
How are hospitals different to prison?
-The client base. Yes, both institutes house individuals who have engaged in offending behaviour, but client needs may differ.
-In hospital for instance, some clients may lack capacity. They are unaware or unable to communicate their circumstances, therefore unable to engage on/with treatment and rehabilitative programs.
Some may also require constant observation or be at significant risk of self-harm or suicide. Prisons are simply not equipped to provide that level of care.
Transfer of inmates from prison to hospital
-In some instances, inmates may be moved to hospital if it is decided that
their needs can no longer be met within the prison environment.
-However, the sentence of the individual is not served during their time in hospital unless specifically ordered.
-The transfer also sees a shift in conditions and interactions with the individual from a criminal in the justice system to that of a patient in secure care.
How are hospitals different to prisons?
-Hospital care can be more tailored to the needs of individual patients whereas prisons tend to be more group based.
