Educational Psychology Flashcards
What was the first job description for a EP?
-To report problematic cases referred by teachers, doctors or magistrates for individual investigation
-To construct and standardise tests
-To organise and carry out surveys of large and representative samples of the entire school habitants
-To be ready to report on any specific problem raised the Education Officer or Committee
What is an EP?
Educational psychology - a field that applies psychology to support children and young people in learning, mental health, and behavioural development,
-EP focus on the biological, cognitive, emotional, and social factors that might affect learning.
-EPs work at multiple levels: individual, school, and policy.
-EPs are not just involved in diagnosing learning difficulties; they also provide interventions, training, and policy guidance.
-See British Psychological Society (BPS) and Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) standards.
-Work at individual, schools, and policy levels to create supportive environments
What do they do?
-Consultation & Assessment: Helping children with learning difficulties (e.g., dyslexia, ADHD) by assessing their needs.
-Intervention & Training: Supporting teachers, parents, and students with strategies and psychological interventions.
-Systemic Change & Research: Contributing to policy and initiatives to improve educational systems
Examples of assessments
-Assessment in context
-School assessment policy
-Local assessment policy
Examples of interventions
-Individual and family therapy
-Contribution to whole establishment interventions, special arrangements, supporting inclusion
-Establish authority wide interventions
Example of consultations
-Discussion with child and family about IEP
-Working with staff, contribution to strategic planning and advice on programmes and policy
-Contribution to strategic planning
Examples of training
-With groups of children and families
-Staff training in schools
-Authority-wide in all areas to multi-agencies
Examples of research
-Single case studies
-Design, implementation and evaluation of action research within single or groups of schools
-Design, implementation and evaluation of authority-wide action research
EP work in practice
-Child and Family Level: Providing assessments and interventions.
-School Level: Working with teachers, training staff, and advising on school policies.
-Local Authority Level: Engaging in research and strategic planning
What is the Scientist-Practitioner Model?
-EPs use a problem-solving approach to assessment and intervention.
-Apply evidence-based psychology to develop solutions.
-Emphasis on data collection, hypothesis
testing, and ethical considerations.
-The Scientist-Practitioner Model is a foundational teaching and training framework for psychologists in the UK that integrates scientific research with applied clinical practice.
-It ensures that psychologists are trained to be both researchers and practitioners, meaning they can apply empirical research findings to their real-world practice while also contributing to the field through evidence-based research.
Key aspects of the model
-Evidence-Based Practice: Using scientific research to inform psychological interventions.
-Research-Informed Decision-Making: Applying data-driven assessments and interventions.
-Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice: Training psychologists to critically evaluate research and integrate it into applied settings.
-Continuous Professional Development: Encouraging lifelong learning through research engagement
How to become an EP
-Undergraduate Degree: BPS-accredited psychology degree (GBC required).
-Work Experience: Assistant psychologist, SEN support, teaching roles.
-Doctorate in Educational Psychology (DEdPsy): 3-year BPS-accredited program.
-HCPC Registration: Required to practice as an EP
Alternative career pathways
-Academic Route: Researching psychology of learning and development.
-Applied Settings: Working in special educational needs (SEN) services.
-Private Practice: Providing assessments and interventions
What is a PhD?
-Dr. of philosophy
-Research driven with limited taught elements
-More Academic based and concerned with theoretical frameworks
-Takes more than 3 years of further study
What is a doctorate?
-Both practice and research
-Significant placement elements (at least 300 working days)
-Takes more than 3 years of further study
How to gain experience?
-Teaching; Graduate assistant in educational psychology service or educational social worker
-Speech and language therapist
-Care workers, social workers
Behaviourism (late 19th-early 20th century)
Key Idea: Focused on observable behaviour. Learning results from stimulus-response associations, meaning behaviour is shaped by external reinforcements (rewards or punishments), rather than internal cognitive processes
Edward Thorndike (1898) – Law of Effect
Key Idea:
-Learning occurs through trial and error, and behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
-“Actions followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated, while actions followed by discomfort are less likely to occur.”
Key Concepts:
-Stimulus-Response (S-R) Bond: Learning is about associating actions with consequences.
-Law of Readiness: Learners must be mentally prepared to learn effectively.
-Law of Exercise: Repetition strengthens learning, while lack of practice weakens it.
Educational Application:
-Reward-based learning systems (e.g., giving students points for good behaviour).
-Frequent practice and repetition in subjects like maths and reading
Ivan Pavlov (1902) – Classical Conditioning
Key Idea:
-Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an automatic response.
-“A previously neutral stimulus can trigger a learned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.”
Key Concepts:
-Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Something that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
-Unconditioned Response (UCR): A natural reaction (e.g., salivation in response to food).
-Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) that, after association, causes a response.
-Conditioned Response (CR): A learned reaction (e.g., salivation at the sound of a bell).
Educational Application:
-Creating positive learning environments – Associating learning with enjoyable experiences.
-Classroom routines – Using signals (e.g., chimes or visual cues) to condition students’ behaviour
John B. Watson (1913) – Classical Behaviourism
Key Idea:
-Psychology should focus on observable behaviour, not mental processes.
-“All behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning.”
Known for:
-Little Albert Experiment (1920): Watson conditioned a child to fear a white rat by associating it with a loud noise.
-Environmental Determinism: Behaviour is shaped entirely by experiences (not genetics or free will).
Educational Application:
-Behaviour modification techniques (e.g., token economies, sticker charts).
-Desensitisation training (counterconditioning) for students with anxieties (e.g., public speaking)
B.F. Skinner (1938) – Operant Conditioning
Key Idea:
-Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
-“The consequences of an action determine the likelihood of it happening again.“
Key Concepts:
-Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour (e.g., praise, rewards).
-Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour (e.g., no homework for good
work).
-Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behaviour (e.g., detention).
-Schedules of Reinforcement: Learning is affected by how often rewards are given (continuous vs. intermittent reinforcement).
Educational Application:
-Using praise and rewards to encourage participation.
-Behaviour contracts and classroom management strategies
Neo-Behaviourism
Emerged as a response to classical behaviourism. It expanded on traditional behaviourist principles by incorporating internal cognitive and motivational factors into learning theories
Albert Bandura (1977) – Social Learning Theory (Neo-behaviourism)
Key Idea:
-Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modelling, not just through rewards and punishments.
-“People learn by watching others and imitating their behaviours.”
Key Concepts:
-Observational Learning: Watching others teaches new behaviours.
-Modelling: Learners copy role models (e.g., teachers, peers).
-Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning from the consequences of others’ actions.
-Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to succeed affects learning motivation.
Bobo Doll Experiment (1961):
-Bandura showed that children who observed aggression were more likely to act aggressively themselves.
-Proved that behaviour is socially learned, not just conditioned.
Educational Application:
-Teachers and peers act as role models for behaviour and learning.
-Encouraging peer mentorship to boost learning through observation.
-Classroom role-play activities to reinforce positive social behaviours
Edward C. Tolman (1932) – Latent Learning Theory
Key Idea:
-Learning can occur without immediate reinforcement and be retrieved later when needed.
-“Not all learning is visible at the time it happens; some knowledge is stored and used later.“
Key Concepts:
-Latent Learning: Information is learned without a reward, but is demonstrated later when an incentive appears.
-Cognitive Maps: Learners create mental representations of their environment.
Example in Education: Students learn without assessment pressure (e.g., a child may not immediately solve a maths problem but can recall the concept later when needed)
Clark L. Hull (1943) – Drive Reduction Theory
Key Idea:
-Learning is driven by biological and psychological needs.
-“When a person experiences a need (e.g., hunger, thirst), they are motivated to act to reduce that need.“
Key Concepts:
-Primary Drives: Basic biological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst, sleep).Secondary Drives: Learned needs associated with survival (e.g., money, approval).
-Reinforcement Strengthens Learning: If an action reduces discomfort, it will likely be repeated in the future.
-Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Connection – If students are hungry, tired, or stressed, they struggle to focus on learning
Cognitivism: (Mid 20th century)
Learning as Information Processing
Key Idea: Cognitivism focuses on how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information.
Learning is a systematic, structured process that happens internally (in the mind)
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory:
1.Sensorimotor
0-2 years
-Learning through senses & movement
-Interactive Play
2.Preoperational
2-7 years
-Egocentric thinking, symbolic play
-Roleplaying games
3.Concrete Operational
7-11 years
-Logical thinking, conservation concept
-Hands on experiences
4.Formal Operational
11+ years
-Abstract reasoning, problem solving
-Algebra, philosophy
Key concepts:
-Used to demonstrate egocentrism in young children
-Children in the preoperational stage struggle to take another person’s perspective
Theory of Mind & the Sally-Anne Task
Key Idea:
-Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and perspectives different from one’s own.
-“Young children initially struggle to recognise that others may hold false beliefs.”
Key Findings:
-Children under 4 fail the task, indicating difficulty with false belief understanding.
-Around age 4-5, children develop Theory of Mind, enabling them to understand others’ thoughts.
Example in Education:
-Role-playing & storytelling to help children understand different perspectives.
-Encouraging social interaction through group discussions and collaborative learning
Cognitive Load Theory: John Sweller (1988)
Key idea:
-Working memory has limited capacity; effective teaching reduces unnecessary
cognitive load.
Education:
-Minimising distractions in lessons, breaking tasks into smaller steps
Schema Theory: Frederic Bartlett (1932),
Richard Anderson (1977)
Key Ideas:
-Knowledge is organised into
schemas (mental frameworks), which change through assimilation and
accommodation.
Education:
-Activating prior knowledge before introducing new topics, using concept maps
Information Processing Theory: Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
Key Ideas:
-The mind processes information like a computer, transferring it from sensory
memory to long-term storage.
Education:
-Chunking information, using visual and auditory aids to enhance memory retention
Dual-Coding Theory: Allan Paivio (1971)
Key Ideas:
-Learning improves when words and images are used together, as they activate different cognitive pathways.
Education:
-Using diagrams with explanations, mind maps, or visual storytelling.
Private Speech (Vygotsky, 1934/1978)
-Talking aloud to oneself helps regulate thinking and problem-solving.
-Younger children use private speech when learning new tasks, and as they develop, it becomes internalised as inner
thought.
Example:
-A child solving a puzzle talks through their thought process: “This piece goes here… no, wait… maybe here!”
Cognitivism & Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky (1978) is associated with both Cognitivism and Constructivism because his work bridges the two paradigms. His Sociocultural Theory includes cognitive processes (attention, memory, and problem-solving) while also emphasising social interaction and active learning (key principles of Constructivism)
Cognitivism & Constructivism (Lev Vygotsky, 1978)
Cognitivism (Mental Processes):
Main Idea:
-Focuses on how the brain processes
information
Vygotsky’s Contribution:
-Cognitive development occurs through
social interaction (ZPD, Private Speech)
Example:
-Teacher guides learning based on what students can do with help (ZPD)
Why it Fits?
-His work involves cognitive growth, memory, and language development
Constructivism (Active Learning & Social Interaction):
Main Idea:
-Learning occurs through social interaction and exploration
Vygotsky’s Contribution:
-Learning is constructed through collaboration and scaffolding
Example:
-Students co-construct knowledge through group discussions
Why it Fits?
-His theory is learner-centred, interactive, and social
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (1978)
Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes
Key Idea:
-Learning is a social process and occurs through interactions with others.
-“Children develop higher-order thinking through social interaction, cultural tools, and guidance from more knowledgeable others.”
Key Concept:
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978)
-The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.
-“Learning happens best when students are challenged just beyond their current ability, but with support.“
Example:
-A child can’t solve a maths problem alone but succeeds with a teacher’s step-by-step prompts.
Constructivism: (Mid 20th century)
Learning as Active Construction of Knowledge
Key Idea: Constructivism argues that learners actively construct their own understanding through experience.
Learning is not just about acquiring facts but about making meaning from experiences
John Dewey’s Experiential Learning Theory (1938)
Key Ideas:
-Learning is active, hands-on, and experience-based.
-“Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.”
-Learning should be student-centred and connected to real-world experiences.
Key Concepts:
Learning Through Experience
-Experiential learning: Students learn best through direct engagement rather than passive memorisation.
-Education should be relevant to students’ daily lives and future roles in society.
Example in Education:
-Using real-world problem-solving instead of rote learning.
-Field trips, hands-on experiments, and interactive activities
Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory
Key Idea:
-Learning is an active process where learners build knowledge through exploration and problem-solving rather than passive memorisation.
Key Principles:
-Constructivist Approach → Learners construct their own understanding.
-Discovery-Based Learning → Encourages experimentation, inquiry, and exploration.
-Scaffolding → Support is gradually reduced as learners become independent.
-Spiral Curriculum → Revisiting topics at deeper levels to enhance mastery.
Example in Education:
-Science Lessons → Students conducting experiments rather than memorizing results.
-Mathematics → Solving problems through hands-on methods instead of rote formulas.
-Language Learning → Encouraging students to infer grammar rules from examples rather than direct instruction
Inquiry-Based Learning:
-Students should ask questions, investigate, and reflect rather than just receive information.
-The teacher is a guide who facilitates learning rather than just delivering content.
Example in Education:
-Project-based learning where students research and present solutions to real-world issues.
-Encouraging classroom discussions and debates to develop critical thinking
Democratic Education:
-Schools should teach democratic values, including collaboration, communication, and civic responsibility.
-Education should prepare students to actively participate in society.
Example in Education:
-Student-led learning projects where they make decisions about their work.
-Encouraging cooperative group work and problem-solving
Connectivism: (Modern Approaches)
Learning in the Digital Age
Key Idea: Connectivism suggests that learning occurs through digital networks, technology, and social connections
rather than just inside the brain. It argues that knowledge is distributed across the internet, social networks, and
external resources, and learning is about navigating and utilising these networks effectively.
Introduction to Connectivism
Key Ideas:
-Connectivism is a modern learning theory that suggests learning occurs through digital networks, technology, and social connections rather than just inside the brain.
-“Knowledge is distributed across a network of connections, and learning consists of the ability to construct and navigate those networks.” (Siemens, 2005)
Connectivism main theorists
-George Siemens (2005) Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age
-Stephen Downes (2012) Expanded on how digital knowledge networks influence learning
Key Principles of Connectivism:
-Learning happens across networks (e.g., online platforms, digital communities, and social media).
-Knowledge is fluid and rapidly changing, unlike traditional structured curricula.
-Technology plays a central role in how we learn and share knowledge.
-Learning is self-directed and lifelong, driven by access to global information sources.
Example in Education:
-Flipped Classrooms; Students learn via digital resources before in-class discussions.
-E-learning & MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses); Students access online knowledge anytime, anywhere
Neuroscience: (Modern Approaches)
Understanding the Brain’s Role in Learning
Key Idea: Neuroscience extends cognitivism by examining how neural networks, brain regions, and neurotransmitters affect learning. Uses brain imaging (e.g., fMRI, EEG) to study cognition.
-Neuroscience studies how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information, influencing learning and behaviour.
-“Understanding brain functions helps educators design teaching strategies that align with how students naturally learn.”
Neuroscience main theorists
-Howard Gardner (1983); Multiple Intelligences Theory
-Eric Jensen (2008); Brain-Based Learning
-John Geake (2009); Critiqued neuromyths and promoted evidence-based neuroscience in education
Neuroscience concepts
Neural Plasticity:
-The brain can reorganise itself through learning and experience.
-Repetitive practice strengthens neural connections (e.g., phonics for reading).
Cognitive Load Theory:
-Working memory has limited capacity, so excess information can hinder learning.
-Breaking down lessons into small, manageable chunks improves retention.
Emotion & Learning:
-The limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus) affects attention and memory.
-A stress-free, supportive learning environment enhances recall and engagement.
Multisensory Learning:
-Using multiple senses (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic) enhances retention.
-Using diagrams, discussions, and hands-on activities together improves learning.
Neuroscience in the Classroom:
-Brain-Based Learning Strategies; Teaching methods aligned with how the brain naturally learns.
-Multisensory Teaching; Using a mix of text, images, sounds, and physical movement.
-Emotionally Safe Learning Environments; Reducing anxiety improves student performance.
-Spacing & Retrieval Practice; Revisiting topics over time strengthens memory formation.
-Neuroscience enhances traditional educational theories by explaining the biological mechanisms behind learning.
-Teachers can use brain-based strategies to optimise learning environments and improve student outcomes.
-Future research will continue refining how neuroscience can support teaching practices
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1979): Key Facts
Key Idea:
-Learning and development are influenced by multiple environmental layers surrounding an individual.
-“Human development is shaped by interactions within nested social systems.“
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) – The Ecology of Human Development
-Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1979) does not fit neatly into the traditional Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism, and Connectivism paradigms because it is a developmental framework rather than a learning theory. However, it still plays a crucial role in understanding how learning is influenced by social and environmental factors.
What is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1979):
1.Microsytem
-Direct relationships that influence the learner
-Family, teachers, peers, classroom interactions
2.Mesosystem
-Connections between microsystems
-Parent-teacher communication, friendships outside school
3.Exosystem
-External environments that affect learning, even if the student is not directly involved
-School policies, parental workplace stress, community resources
4.Macrosystem
-Broader societal and cultural influences
-Education system, national curriculum, social norms, economic conditions
5.Chronosystem
-Changes over time affecting the individual
-Technology shifts in education, life events (divorce, relocation)
Why This Theory Matters in Education:
-Explains why children learn differently based on family, school, and cultural environments.
-Highlights how education is influenced by larger societal factors (e.g., funding, policies, technology shifts).
-Connects well with other theories like Vygotsky’s (social context) and Bandura’s (social learning)
Recap Behaviourism
-Learning through conditioning (Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike).
-Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) – Law of Effect: Behaviours followed by rewards are strengthened.
-Pavlov (1849-1936) – Classical Conditioning: Learning through association
(Pavlov’s Dogs).
-Skinner (1904-1990) – Operant Conditioning: Learning shaped by positive/negative reinforcement.
Recap Neo-bahvourism
-Expands on behaviourism by integrating
cognitive processes
(Bandura, Tolman, Hull).
-Tolman (1886-1959) – Latent Learning: Learning can happen without
immediate reinforcement.
-Hull (1884-1952) – Drive Reduction Theory: Learning is motivated by
biological needs.
-Bandura (1925-2021) – Social Learning Theory: Learning occurs through
observation, imitation, and modelling
Recap Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Stages of development
-Sensorimotor (0-2)
-Preoperational (2-7)
-Concrete Operational (7-11)
-Formal Operational (11+)
-Remember the Three Mountains Task for assessing egocentrism.
-Limitations: Underestimated children’s abilities
Recap Alternatives: Dynamic Systems Theory
-DST emphasises how various internal and external factors (like motor skills, perception, social context) interact and
influence each other to create emergent behaviour.
-Development does not follow a rigid stage-like pathway, instead, it is dependent on many factors
Recap the naughty teddy bear task
-The “naughty teddy” experiment by McGarrigle and Donaldson
-A variation of Piaget’s conservation task, demonstrated that children can conserve(i.e., understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance) at an earlier age than Piaget initially proposed
-Children perform better when the transformation is accidental rather than intentional.
Recap Piaget’s Conservation Task
-Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children in the preoperational stage (roughly ages 2-7) struggle with the concept of conservation, meaning they believe that changing the appearance of something also changes its quantity.
Recap The Naughty Teddy Bear Experiment
-McGarrigle and Donaldson aimed to challenge Piaget’s timeline by modifying the conservation task. They presented children with rows of counters (or other objects) and then either a “naughty teddy bear” accidentally moved them around or the experimenter intentionally rearranged them.
Findings:
-Children were more accurate in judging that the number of counters remained the same when the transformation was accidental (caused by the teddy bear) compared to when it was intentional (caused by the experimenter).
-This suggests that children as young as four years old can conserve, and they are more likely to do so when the transformation is perceived as accidental rather than intentional
Recap Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) - An Alternative to Piaget
(Thelen & Smith, 1994)
Key Idea:
-Development is fluid, non-linear, and context-dependent rather than occurring
in fixed stages.
-Learning emerges dynamically from experience, interaction, and environment,
rather than pre-set biological stages.
-Self-organisation: Cognitive and motor skills develop through trial-and-error
and problem-solving.
Recap challenges to Piaget’s Stage Theory
-DST suggests that skills emerge at different times depending on the child’s social and environmental influences.
-Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. MIT Press
Recap Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
-Learning occurs between what a student can do alone and with help. Stretching comfort zone.
-Scaffolding: Gradually reducing support as competency increases.
Recap Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory (Bruner, 1961, 1966)
Key Idea:
-Learning is an active process where students construct new ideas based on prior knowledge.
-Discovery-based learning encourages exploration and problem-solving rather than passive memorisation.
-Emphasises meaning-making rather than simply acquiring facts.
Main Principles of Discovery Learning:
Enactive, Iconic, and Symbolic Representation:
-Enactive (0-6 years): Learning through physical actions and direct experiences.
-Iconic (6-11 years): Learning through images and visual aids.
-Symbolic (11+ years): Learning through abstract concepts, language, and logic.
Scaffolding: Teachers provide guidance but allow students to discover answers
independently.
-Spiral Curriculum: Revisiting topics at increasing levels of complexity to deepen
understanding.
Influence on Education:
-Encourages student-led learning, inquiry-based teaching, and exploration.
-Promotes critical thinking, curiosity, and problem-solving.
-Used in STEM education, active learning classrooms, and project-based
learning.
Recap Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
-Microsystem: Family, school, immediate environment.
-Mesosystem: Interaction between microsystems
-Exosystem: Indirect influences (e.g., parent’s workplace).
-Macrosystem: Cultural values, societal norms.
-Chronosystem: Accounts for the influence of (and through) time
-Key Idea: Learning and development are influenced by multiple environmental layers.
Recap Theory of Mind & Autism Research
Sally-Anne Task: Assesses false belief understanding.
-Children under 4 fail the task, indicating difficulty with false belief understanding.
-Around age 4-5, children develop Theory of Mind, enabling them to understand others’ thoughts.
-Proposed as a test for ToM in Autism.
-Suggested ASD individuals do not have ToM.
-Influenced treatment pathway for ASD- with much detrimental effect
-Criticism: Fails to account for broader autistic social abilities.
Recent Research:
-Suggests social misunderstanding is bidirectional.
-ASD individuals passed the test at rates comparable to typical
-Other factors like instructional language, time allowed to complete and lab vs naturalistic setting had an impact on results- replication failed to render similar results
