forensic psych Flashcards
what is crime?
an action or omission that goes against the law of the state or crown
what is deviance?
an action that is not against the law but is wrong/ against social norms
what are cultural issues in defining crime?
what is considered crime/ how its dealt with is diff between cultures
most research is ethnocentric (only relevant where research was carried out)
eg bigamy is illegal in uk but not other cultures
what are historical issues in defining crime?
definitions of crime change over time
eg homosexuality became legal in Britain in 1967
what is offender profiling?
the process of predicting the characteristics of an offender based on the information available
what is the top down approach?
used by the FBI
starts with the big picture and then fills in the details
how was the top down approach developed?
1970s
FBIs Behavioural Science Unit gathered data from 36 sexually motivated serial killers
problems with how the top down approach was developed?
all men- androcentric
sexually motivated- very specific type of crime
1970s- temporal validity
developed in USA- ethnocentric
36 criminals- quite a small sample size
what are the 4 main stages of constructing a profile in top down approach
1) data assimilation- profiler reviews evidence
2) crime classification- organised and disorganised
3) crime reconstruction- hypotheses formation of how crime may have taken place
4) profile generation- hypotheses related to LIKELY characteristics of the offender
organised crime
planned, self control at crime scene, few clues, target stranger, controls victim
above avg IQ, socially/sexually competent, married, angry/ depressed, follows media coverage of crimes, skilled occupation
disorganised crime
little planning, little attempt to hide evidence, minimum use of constraint random disorganised behaviour, lives alone near crime scene, sexually and socially inadequate, unemployed, abused in childhood, frightened/ confused
who produced the theory of organised/ disorganised crimes? when?
Hazelwood and Douglas
1980
evaluation of top-down typology
- can only be applied to sexually motivated serial killers due to limitations of og sample
- alison et al 2002 argues its based on outdated theories of personality being stable (external, situational factors have major influence)
- reductionist. offenders arent either organised or not- may be features of both. may start disorganised and become more organised as they develop their modus operandi
what is the bottom up approach?
who created it and when?
the UK approach
start with details and create the bigger picture
looks for consistencies in behaviour
no initial assumptions made about offender
relies heavily on computer databases
canter 1990 (more recent)
made up of smallest space and geographical profiling
what is Canter’s most famous case?
John Duffy
see page 8
what is smallest space analysis?
used to identify patterns and see if a series of offences are linked
what is interpersonal coherence?
behaviour of the offender at the time of the crime is comparable to what they are like in every day life
central to approach of investigative psychology and bottom up approach
what is geographical profiling/crime mapping?
used to make inferences about where an offender is likely to live
what is canters circle theory (1993)?
problem?
proposes 2 models of offender behaviour
marauders- commit crimes close to where live/ feel secure. usually disorganised
commuters- commit crimes away from where live. usually organised
reductionist
evaluation of bottom up approach
evidence supports investigative psych- canter and heritage 1990 analysed 66 sexual assault cases using smallest space and identified clear common patterns of behaviour
evidence supports geographical profiling. lundrigan and canter 2001 collated evidence from 120 murder cases and found offenders home base was in centre of crime scene pattern
computer databases and smallest space analysis makes the approach more scientific that top down
wider applications, can be applied to other crimes
despite copson 1995 finding 83% police forces found it useful, in only 3% of cases did it lead to accurate identification of offender. eg Rachel Nickel case- arrested collin stagg instead of robert knapper
what was Cesare Lombroso’s theory of anthropological criminology?
stated that criminality is inherited and someone born criminal could be identified by physical defects
what is atavistic form? 1876
what is the study?
biological explanation of criminality.
lombroso used it to explain that offenders are genetic throwbacks or a primitive sub-species not suited to conforming to rules of modern society
distinguishable features.
study of 383 dead and 3839 living Italian criminals (ethnocentric and androcentric), found 40% had atavistic characteristics (nowhere near statistically significant)
example characteristics of atavistic form
large jaw, forward projection of jaw, high cheek bones, flattered/upturned nose, hard shifty eyes, insensitive to pain, tatoos, baldness etc etc (all very subjective and similar to hitlers ideas of eugenics)
what are sheldons body types (1942)- how environmental factors could explain lombrosos characteristics?
ectomorph (skinnier)- artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introverted
endomorph (larger)- tolerant, relaxed, love comfort/ luxury, pleasant, extraverted
mesomorph (muscley)- courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk-taker (most male delinquents are mesomorph)
evaluation of atavistic form
outdated and seem ridiculous but represent beginning of offender profiling (lombroso was 1st to move away from lack of morality as cause for crime)
lombroso used scientific methods- evidence based approach to research, hundreds of obs and measurements
no control group so those characteristics could have just been common in general pop
scientifically racist- characteristics he identified are more prevalent in certain racial groups- but still issue today (eberhardt found stereotypically black looking men more likely to get death penalty in USA than others)
characteristics described are likely due to poverty, diet, illness, disease
Goring 1913 found evidence that criminals are likely to have lower IQ but this may mean its due to education not biology
lack of temporal validity- around the time eugenic theories were popular
what is the diathesis-stress model?
the way that biological factors and external factors work together
diathesis- biological vulnerability to poor mental health
stress- external factors eg physical, psychological
protective factors- support network from family, friends, medical professionals etc)
eg may have biological vulnerability but wont express due to support network and lack of stress
outline neural explanations of crime?
anatomy of brain and neurotransmitters
adrian raine (2000) found abnormalities in criminal brains (specifically people with APD) eg 11% reduction in grey matter and reduced activity in prefrontal cortex (regulates emotional behaviour, control impulses, feel guilt)
diagnostic features of APD
repeatedly breaking the law
repeatedly being deceitful
being impulsive
being irritable and aggressive
being reckless
disregard for personal safety and for safety of others
lack of remorse
what did keyers 2011find?
what are mirror neurons?
mirror neurons did not function in individuals w APD as in normal controls
mirror neurons enable us to feel empathy
individuals w APD werent completely without empathy but had to be told to feel empathy when watching a film showing someone in pain
can switch on/off mirror neurons
evaluation of neural explanations of offending behaviour
+
research support- Raine
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not every criminal has APD or abnormal brain structures- reductionist- everyone has free will
what are genetic explanations for offending behaviour?
the way genes influence behaviour
eg MAOA gene
what did Price (1966) find?
(genetic explanation)
males w extra Y chromosome (XYY) are supermale and predisposed towards violent crime
cause them to be above avg height and below avg intelligence (links to atavistic form)
what did Christiansen (1977) do?
(genetic explanation)
looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark
52% concordance rate for criminality was found for MZ twins and 22% for DZ
problems:
- shared upbringing
- not 100% for MZ
Describe Brunner’s 1993 study + procedure + findings + conclusions
case study on family from Netherlands where males are affected by syndrome of borderline mental retardation and abnormal violent and aggressive behaviour (eg aggression, arson, rape, exhibitionism)
procedure- 5 affected males, data collected from urine samples over 24hrs, medical, school, criminal records analysed
findings- mutation on X of gene responsible for production of MAOA gene (warrior gene). mutation leads to increased levels of MAOA. role of MAOA is to remove serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline so more MAOA means lower levels of these which leads to behavioural problems.
serotonin- sleep, mood
dopamine- emotional arousal
noradrenaline- arousal
conclusions- MAOA involved in serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline metabolism reduced serotonin explains the sleep problems and mental retardation (linked to aggressive behaviour) reduced adrenaline/ noradrenaline explain inappropriate violent and sexual behaviour
evaluate genetic explanations of offending behaviour
- there is support for diathesis- stress model
- use of scientific method/ equipment eg PET scans
- problems w twin studies as its hard to untangle nature/ nurture, small sample sizes so cant generalise
- biological determinism- genes arent destiny as people have free will
- reductionist- crime is complex and reason for it is varied
- Jim Fallon- brain of serial killer (low activity in prefrontal cortex, mutated MAOA) but hes a professor and isnt a serial killer- has good protective factors
what are the explanations of offending behaviour
Biological
- atavistic form, genetics, neural
psychological
- eysencks theory of criminal personality
- cognitive explanations (moral reasoning, attribution)
- differential association
- psychodynamic
how does Eysenk’s theory of personality apply to offender behaviour?
he says personality is innate and has a biological basis
there is a personality type known as the criminal personality- high measures of extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism
they are hard to condition and cold and unfeeling- explain criminality
he tested personality using a questionnaire
evaluate criminal personality as an explanation for crime
- Evidence from Esenck’s study of 2070 male prisoners and 2422 male controls. prisoners scored higher on extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism than controls
- Farrington reviewed several studies and only found evidence of prisoners scoring higher on psychoticism
- idea of 1 personality type explaining all criminal behaviour isnt plausible- not all crimes/ criminals are the same
- culturally biased- Holanchock studied black and hispanic criminals in america and found them to be less extraverted than non- criminal control group
- validity of measuring personality through psychometric test is questionable as is the notion that personality is a stable entity- changes over the years
- Eysencks theory could be accused of biological determinism despite being a psychological explanation as it is similar to bio explains eg APD and looks at functioning of nervous system. sees personality as innate and unchanging
what are cognitive distortions? what are the 4 cognitive distortions for crime?
faulty, biased or irrational ways of thinking
hostile attribution bias
minimalisation
internal and external attribution
fundamental attribution error
what is hostile attribution bias?
offender misreads actions/ intentions of another
eg thinking someone is being confrontational when theyre not (not reading emotion/ mood/ through texts)
schonenberg and juyste presented 55 violent offenders with emotionally ambiguous faces. they were much more likely to perceive the faces as angry/hostile than a non-aggressive control group
what is minimalisation?
attempt to downplay or deny the seriousness of an offence ‘nobody got hurt’
more common in sex offenders
barbaree found amongst 26 convicted rapists, 54% denied that they had committed and 40% downplayed the harm caused
what is internal and external attribution?
internal- accepting full responsibility for own behaviour
external- sees cause of their behaviour as external factor ‘he provoked me’
criminal is considered rehabilitated when they have an internal attribution
what is fundamental attribution error?
we tend to attribute more significance to situational factors when considering causes of our own behaviour and more significance to personality when considering the behaviour of others
eg
good grade- attribute it to your hard work
bad grade- blame teachers
evaluate cognitive distortions as explanations for crime
practical apps for rehab- CBT used to change way offenders think and therefore behave
individual differences between criminals and crimes- cognitive distortions cant explain all. cant ever know what someone is thinking- have to ask/ infer- lacks reliability and validity
what are morals?
what are ages of criminal responsibility? what is it in diff countries?
set of norms/values usually learnt from our parents about what is right/wrong
the age above which you are deemed to clearly know the difference between right and wrong
UK- 10 (scotland 12)
germany- 14
france- 13
china- 12
south carolina- 6
35 other states- 7
what did Kohlberg 1963 believe about moral development? what research did he do?
childrens cognition develops through stages
presented groups of boys with moral dilemmas eg Heinz dilemma and asked them questions about them
describe Kohlbergs 1963 research
aim- find evidence in support of progression through stages of moral development
procedure- 58 working and middle class boys from chicago, aged 7, 10, 13, 16 were given 2hr interview w 10 dilemmas. followed up 3 yearly intervals. repeated in UK, Mexico, Taiwan, USA
findings- younger boys tended to perform in stages 1 and 2 of development and older boys at 3 and 4
conclusions- supports idea of stage theory.
what are the levels of moral reasoning?
pre-morality- stage 1 (punishment and obedience orientation), stage 2 ( hedonistic orientation)
conventional morality- stage 3 (interpersonal concordance orientation), stage 4 (law and order orientation)
post-conventional morality- stage 5 (social contract or legalistic), stage 6 ( universal ethical principles orientation)
what did thornton and reid 1982 find?
what did chandler 1973 find?
criminals committing crime for financial gain show more immature reasoning than those committing violent crimes
individuals who function at higher levels of moral reasoning sympathise more with the right of others ad exhibit more conventional behaviours (honesty, generosity, non-violence)
evaluate moral reasoning as an explanation for crime
sample- androcentric, small, ethnocentric
ecological validity- not real scenarios- demand characteristics
research support- thorton and reid, chandler
longitudinal- effects of time
criminals may have good morals- eg broke the law for greater good (stage 5)
reductionist- individual differences between criminals and crimes
what does sutherlands 1939 differential hypothesis suggest?
through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, motivation for criminal behaviour
offending behaviour may be learnt through classical/ operant conditioning or SLT
what 9 principles did sutherland present?
1) Criminal behaviour is learnt
2) criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication- socialising w criminals may lead to offending
3) principle part of learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups- closer, more likely
4) when criminal behaviour is learnt, learning includes techniques which may be complicated or simple, and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes
5) specific direction of motives and drives is learnt from definitions of legal codes as favourable/ unfavourable- cultural diffs
6) person becomes delinquent because of excess of definitions favourable to violation of law of definitions unfavourable- peer pressure
7) differential association (no of contacts w criminals> non-criminals) may vary in freq, duration, priority, intensity- someone may be more influential
8) process of learning criminal behaviour by association w criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all mechanisms that are involved in any other learning- enjoy committing, reinforced
9) criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, not explained by general needs and values as non-criminal behaviour is expression of same needs and values- criminals and non have same needs
what are the 2 core assumptions of sutherlands theory?
devience occurs when people define a ceratin human situation as an appropriate occasion for violating social norms/ criminal laws
definitions of situation are acquired through an individuals history of past experience
evaluate differential hypothesis
shifted emphasis away from biology and eugenics arguments for criminality
can account for white collar (all types of) crime for all race, gender, social groups
impossible to test- how do you count someones associations and influences
farrington found that family is large influence on offending. crime is inter-generational (limitation as links to biological)
doesnt account for individual differences- some people more susceptible to influence of others
can also use SLT and behaviourist evaluations as long as link to offending behaviour
what is the superego?
formed 5-6, phallic stage, contains moral values, internalised same-sex parent, ensures ego doesnt use unacceptable means to satisfy id, tells us how we should behave, 2 parts: conscience (tells us what we shouldnt do, guilt) and ego ideal (tells us what we should do, pride)
what did blackburn 1993 say about the superego?
if the superego is deficient, then criminality is inevitable as the Id is not properly controlled so we give into urges and impulses
1) weak superego may develop if same-sex parent is absent during phallic stage- fail to internalise
2) deviant superego- child internalises morals of a criminal or deviant same sex parent
3) over-harsh superego- same-sex parent is overly harsh- individual is crippled with guilt and anxiety and commits crime to satisfy superegos need for punishment
other than superego, what is another psychodynamic explanation for criminal behaviour?
bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis
infant deprived of its mother/mother figure during critical period will have serious, permanent consequences eg, mental abnormalities, delinquency, depression, affectionless psychopathy, dwarfism
study of 44 juvenile thieves
evaluate psychodynamic explanations for crime
- freuds theory is sexist- electra complex was an after thought to oedipus complex. males feel castration for moral transgressions, females only fear losing mothers love
- little evidence- many grow up w/o same sex parent and dont turn to crime
- overharsh superego and wanting to be punished doesnt stand up to scrutiny- most criminals go to great lengths to not get caught/ punished
- concept of unconscious motivations are untestable and unfalsifiable- pseudoscientific
- issues w Bowlby’s research- failed to identify between deprivation/ privation and sample was biased
- correlation between maternal deprivation and criminality doesnt mean causation
what was the prison pop in the UK in 2023 and avg cost per prisoner in 2022?
88,691 (4% women) (2022- 422 were children and 12 were under 12)
£48162
why is it difficult for prisoners to get jobs w/o successful educational intervention?
prison reform trust 2007- many prisoners havent reached levels of literacy expected of an 11 year old
50% in writing, 66% numeracy, 80% reading. 50% dont have skills required for 96% of jobs and 50% have been excluded from school
also, criminal record
what is parole?
why is it important?
being released early
gives prisoners incentive to behave (applications for parole based on behaviour, nature of offence, judges comments) so makes them more manageable
what are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?
deterrence- unpleasant so criminals shouldn’t want to go back. also deterrent to others
incapacitation- taking criminal out of circulation to keep society safe as they cant commit further crime
rehabilitation- reform criminals through training, education, therapy so they leave changed person
retribution- society taking revenge on criminal by taking their freedom away
what are the 3 psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
stress and depression- suicide and self harm rates are higher in prison than elsewhere. pre-existing mental struggles worsen in prison
institutionalisation- having adopted norms and values of prison, many find it hard to cope in real life upon release- some recommit to get back to prison
prisonation- similar to above, some behaviours unacceptable irw are encouraged in prison. prisoners accept prisoner code and hierarchy to survive
what did zimbardo conclude from SPE?
situational factors were more useful in explaining behaviour of prisoners and guards than individual ones. ppts conformed to ideas of how prisoners and guards should behave
what is recidivism?
statistics
reoffending
57% of people reoffend within a year of release (2013)
67% of under 18s are reconvicted within a year of release
offending by recent ex-prisoners in 2007-8 cost £9,5- 13 billion (could be used for rehab)
evaluate prisons
curt bartol 1995 suggested that prison is ‘brutal, demeaning and generally devastating’. suicide rates are 15x higher with most at risk being young single men in first 24hrs in prison. 25% of females and 15% of females have symptoms of psychosis
individual differences- not all prisoners react in same way to incarceration- some of the punishment should fit individual not crime
limited opportunities for rehab- cuts to prison budgets means education, training and therapy arent always available or effectively delivered
universities of crime- young inexperienced criminals learn from older, more experienced individuals- opposite of rehab
alternatives- probation, tags, curfews, anger management, CBT and restorative justice as prison doesnt work. but, gov is reluctant to invest in prisoners due to economic restraints and public opinion- short sighted as investment is needed- economic implications
how does behaviour modification using operant conditioning work?
reward appropriate behaviour and withhold rewards for inappropriate behaviour- reinforces good behaviour
what is a token economy?
application of operant conditioning principles to adults in institutional settings
tokens eg plastic disks are awarded for desirable behaviour and can be exchanged for privileges-reinforce desirable behaviour
examples of behaviours and rewards in a token economy in prisons
behaviours
-making bed
-helping with little jobs eg working in library
-work exp
-cleaning up after eating
-engaging in rehab
rewards
-parole option
-more/longer phone calls
-better food- but should this be given anyway?
-more social time
what was Hobbs and Holts 1976 study?
Allyon 1979?
introduced token economy with young delinquents in 3 behavioural units, 4th as a control. observed sig improvements in + behaviour as a result
found similar in an adult prison
evaluate token economy
- easy to implement- dont need training/ equipment like other therapies, but need to be consistent
- might reward wrong behaviour eg if token given few hours later and a fight has happened in-between
- effects they appear to produce might not be primarily from the tokens- may be responding to more attention/ system of activities/ improved monitoring
- tokens may not change behaviour- may fake desirable behaviour then revert on release from prison
- ethical issues- is it ethical to withhold ‘privileges’ eg TV because prisoner isnt desirable- human rights are threatened when food and freedom are controlled
- clinton field 2004 found that for max effect, rewards and freq need to be tailored to individuals eg house points work w yr7 not yr11
- help prepare for outside world
- influence + behaviours (develop)
- maybe less people in prison
- research support
what is restorative justice?
brings those harmed by crime or conflict and those responsible for the harm into communication, enabling everyone affected to play a part in repairing the harm and finding a positive way forward
what is involved in restorative justice?
supervised mediation meeting between victim and offender with trained mediator
when does restorative justice not work?
- offender isnt genuinely remorseful/ fakes it
- victim isnt strong enough to have a conversation with the offender (it is voluntary)
what does restorative justice aim to provide victims with?
- opportunity to explain impact of the crime
- acknowledgement of harm caused
- chance to ask questions
- some control and choice
- peace of mind about the future
why is restorative justice tough for victims and offenders?
victims- forced to relive frightening and upsetting experiences
offenders- have to face up to consequences of actions
what are the aims of restorative justice?
- rehab of offenders- active process, tough, take responsibility, reduce likelihood of reoffence
- atonement for wrongdoing- offer concrete compensation or atone by showing genuine remorse
- victims perspective- restores power to victims, voice is heard and taken into account, reduces feelings of being a victim and help them feel safe again
what did john braithwaite 2004 say?
crime hurts, justice should heal
what are the key features of restorative justice
focus on acceptance of responsibility
not restricted to court rooms
active involvement of all parties
focus on positive outcomes
evaluate restorative justice
- UK restorative justice council 2015 reported 85% satisfaction from victims
- sherman and strang 2007- reviewed 20 studies 142 convicted of violence/property offences who had rj- only 11% reoffended compared to 37% control
- offenders must feel genuine remorse so not suitable for all criminals/ crimes
- shapland 2007- every £1 spent on restorative justice would have saved gov £8 through reduced reoffending- bust costs to train & high dropout rates so not always cost effective
- public opinion may see it is soft option
- womens aid called for ban on use of rj in cases of dv
- most effective with youth/ 1st offenders- short sharp shock
effects of anger
increased heart rate, blood pressure, levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline
problems with controlling anger-> violent behaviour
what are the 3 stages in anger management (form of CBT)
- cognitive preparation- reflect on past behaviour, what makes them angry, shown how their response is irrational, helped to redefine situation as non threatening, taught to recognise triggers- COGNITIVE
- skill acquisition- taught range of techniques and skills to avoid triggers and deal w anger-provoking situations rationally, training in assertiveness and effective communication, taught to control emotions rather than be ruled by them- BEHAVIOURIST
- application practice- practice new skills through role play, therapist provokes them and positively reinforce successful strategies (ethical issues)- SLT
describe Ireland (2000) study
aim- assess whether anger management programmes work with young male offenders
procedure- natural experiment, 50 prisoners who had CALM and 37 who were suitable for it but didnt have it, given cognitive behavioural interview, prison officers completed a WBC rating 29 angry behaviours with scores 0-2 for week before interview. prisoners also completed self-report questionnaire on anger management w 53 qs
conclusions- short term-effective but no reoffending data
evaluate anger management
eclectic approach- cognitive, behavioural, social approaches- behaviour is complex interaction between social/ psychological factors
more likely to lead to permanent change than behaviour modification programmes eg token economy- focuses on changing the way offender thinks and behaves
works short term but lack of reoffending data so dk lasting effects. also, role-playing controlling anger is diff to real life- ecological validity
limited in applications- not all crime is motivated by anger eg crime for financial gain is logical- no benefit from CBT
expensive, time consuming, need highly skilled therapists, prisoner must want to change
