Cognition and development Flashcards
what was Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
structuralist approach- children go through stages
development is systematic and structured
qualitative difference in thoughts of children
changes in way child thinks about world indicates cognitive/ intellectual development
what is discovery learning?
central component of piagets theory
involves active participation of learner
knowledge must be constructed and reconstructed
child must be active- not just a vessel to fill with facts
what is the readiness approach?
piaget said children cant learn something until theyre ready
ability to learn is related to stage of intellectual development
what is a schema?
what happens to schemas during learning?
cognitive representation of all that we know about an object/person/idea
they become increasingly complex and sophisticated
what is disequilibrium?
piaget says we are motivated to learn when existing schemas dont allow us to make sense of the work- leads to disequilibrium
we are motivated to learn to create equilibrium
what is assimilation?
adding new info to existing schema
example in booklet
what is accomodation?
radically changing a schema/ creating a new one
example in booklet
evaluate discovery learning/ schemas
+ evidence to support theory that children learn through discovery learning and forming schema
+ prac aps for education- discovery/ active learning
_ Vygotsky said children learn from others- Piaget overlooks this. children also learn from imitating
_ Piaget saw language as another cognitive process. many theorists see language as key to cognitive development. w/o language, understanding isnt possible
_ eqm might not be as important as he said- some arent uncomfortable with not knowing things
_ Falsifiability issues- hypothetical structures/ processes
What is Piaget’s stages of cognitive development theory? (1936)
intellectual development happens in stages
child goes onto next stage once completely mastered first- each stages is a building block
he suggested rough ages for each stage- diff for everyone but all happen in same order
what is stage 1 of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
sensory motor stage (birth- 18m)
child gains understanding of environment using senses and movement
child develops object permanence around 8m (ability to appreciate that just because you can no longer see something doesn’t mean it no longer exists)- explains why child under this age rarely show separation anxiety- out of sight= out of mind
Piaget observed children looking at objects, once removed, children 8m> switched attention to something else
8m< would look for the object
some argue that this is motor development issue (don’t have the co-ordination or mobility to search)
what is stage 2 of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
pre-operational stage (18m-7y)
conservation, egocentric, class inclusion
child becomes able to represent objects/ events by symbols/ signs
able to use language and express ideas
child is also developing some general rules about mental operations
what is conservation?
child ability to understand volume and mass
conservation experiment
show child 2 beakers of water- one tall and thin, one short and fat, child in pre-operational stage will say tall one has more water even though same volume
clay in ball/ sausage- say sausage has more clay
5 buttons spread out and 5 close together- will say ones spread out have more buttons
how does Piaget explain the inability to conserve?
child fails to understand things remain constant despite changes in appearance
example of centration- child hasnt decentred so is centring on just one dimension
what is egocentrism?
not being able to see things from a perspective other than their own
egocentrism experiment
three mountain task
shown a model of three mountains each with a different feature: - a cross, a house or snow
doll was sat on the opposite side
asked to describe what the doll could see
children in the pre-operational stage found it difficult to appreciate the doll had a different view and would just describe their own view of the scene
what is class inclusion?
children in pre-operational stage can understand classification (Labrador, poodle, cockapoo are all dogs)
dont have skill of class inclusion (find it difficult to deal with subsets)
children shown picture of 5 dogs and 2 cats and asked are there more dogs or animals. they answered dogs as they couldnt see dogs as members of the subset animals and the subset dogs at the same time
what is stage 3 of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Concrete operational stage (7y- 12y)
child is able to use more sophisticated mental operations- said to have decentred (able to take account of more than one aspect of a situation)
still limited in a number of ways eg tend to think about the world in terms of how it is and find it hard to speculate on how it might be
the child can conserve, is no longer egocentric and can perform class inclusion tasks.
what is stage 4 of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Formal operational stage (12y+)
This stage is mainly governed by formal logic -most sophisticated stage of thinking
gain ability to think in an abstract manner by manipulate ideas in their head, without any dependence on concrete manipulation (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
can do mathematical calculations, think creatively, use abstract reasoning, and imagine the outcome of particular actions.
evaluate Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
+
has given psychologists insights into qualities and limitations of child thought
prac aps- schools
**research support- eg 3 mountains **
-
piagets findings might be result of structure of his tests not limitations of child thought
samuel and bryant- asking child same question twice is confusing as child assumes first answer is wrong. found that asking ‘which has more’ led to children being able to conserve younger
McGarrigle and donaldson- using puppets (naughty teddy) enabled children to conserve younger too
seigler and svetina- original class inclusion tasks are confusing. when clarified, children capable of class inclusion earlier
Hughes found children could decentre earlier if 3 mountains task made more realistic using 2 dolls and a policeman. told to position dolls where policeman couldnt see them- children as young as 3 could do this
Bradmetz- Piaget not only underestimated ability of young children, overestimated those of adolescents- many couldnt do formal reasoning task
domain general- cant explain domain specific development- diff abilities develop better than others in diff people- particularly evident in conditions autism. language, intellect, socialisation are domain specific
Baillargeon- babies are born with object permanence
what is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development (1896-1934)?
agrees with piaget that development occurs in stages
places importance on role of social interaction in learning- an expert supports and guides a novice until they’ve gained knowledge/ skill being taught
ZPD
what is intermental knowledge?
what is intramental knowledge?
between more and less expert individuals eg teacher and student
within the mind of the new expert individual. children playing and learning together
what is the zone of proximal development?
the difference between what a learner can do with help and without help
when a child is in ZPD, appropriate assistance can help them achieve the task
what is scaffolding?
the kind of help an adult/ more advanced peer gives to a child in the ZPD
what are the 5 aspects of scaffolding identified by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976)
1) recruitment- engaging childs interest
2) reduction of degrees of freedom- focus on task and strategies to solve it
3) direction maintenance- encouragement to maintain motivation
4) marking crucial features- highlighting important features of the task
5) demonstrating- showing child how to do the task
evaluate vgotsky’s theory of cognitive development
+ research support for role of ZPD- Roazzi and Bryant found children performed better with prompts when estimating number of sweets in a jar
+ support for scaffolding- Corner and Cross observed mothers reducing intervention support and help given to children as they got older and more able
+ prac aps- education and role of the teacher and peers
_ when do you remove the scaffolding? many are good at providing scaffolding but fail to encourage independence
_ cultural and individual differences in way/ rate children learn. vygotsky underestimated these
eg start school later in some countries- more play so more intramental knowledge
what is object permanence?
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cant be seen, heard, or touched
what does Baillargeon believe about object permanence?
she opposes Piaget and suggests that babies are born with object permanence
what is the violation of expectation paradigm?
technique used by Baillargeon to study object permanence
what is expected does not happen
exploits the fact that babies look for longer at things they havent encountered before/ that seem impossible
suggests that children have an understanding of how physical world works so have expectations of what will happen in certain scenarios- if this doesnt happen, they show a reaction
what happens in a VOE experiment?
infant introduced to a novel situation
repeatedly shown it until they look away, indicating they are bored and the scenario is no longer new to them
this is the habituation stimulus
they are then shown a variation of the habituation stimulus that is a possible event (could physically happen) then an impossible event (couldnt physically happen the way it appears)
eye fixation data tracked
describe Baillargeon et als 1985 drawbridge study
infants shown drawbridge opening and closing
then shown a coloured box placed in path of drawbridge
possible event- box blocks the drawbridge so it stops
impossible event- drawbridge appears to pass through the box and lies flat
infants looked longer at impossible event- indicated surprise as expectations violated
infant had object permanence so knew box was still there so expected it to stop the bridge
found object permanence in children 5 months old- much earlier than Piaget said
describe Baillargeon and Grabers 1987 study
examined 5.5 month olds ability to represent height of hidden object
saw 2 events where toy rabbit travelled along horizontal track, centre of which was covered by screen with large window in upper half
possible event- rabbit shorter than lower edge of window
impossible event- rabbit taller than windows lower edge
both events, rabbit travelled along track and disappeared at one end of screen then reappeared at other
infants looked longer at impossible than possible indicating:
- believed rabbit continued to exist and perused trajectory behind screen
- represented height of rabbit behind screen therefore:
- expected tall rabbit to appear in window and were surprised that it failed to do so
what was the control condition for Baillargeon and Grabers 1987 study
pre-test display suggested that 2 separate rabbits were used to produce events (one travelled left, one right) supported this interpretation
results have implications for research on development of infants ability to represent and use info about physical and spatial properties of hidden objects
Baillargeon’s theory of infant physical reasoning
believes babies born w physical reasoning system- innate
so, babies born w basic understanding of physical world and ability to learn more details through experience
babies born w object persistence (not permanence)- idea that object remains in existence and does not spontaneously change its physical structure
evaluate Baillargeon’s theory/ research
+ **seems better way of assessing object permanence than Piaget’s test- his results could be due to limitations in motor skills and coordination rather than lack of object permanence **
+ concept of PRS explains why childrens understanding of physical world seems to be universal regardless of experience
+ **internal validity/ reliability- controlled variables **
_ difficult to objectively study understanding in infants, understanding is inferred from behaviour and this is a subjective judgement
**
just because theyre looking at impossible event longer doesnt mean they know its impossible- just new **
what is social cognition?
the ability to understand and interact with others by perceiving, interpreting, and responding to social cues. involves other cognitive process, including perception, decision-making and understanding emotions
what is physical perspective taking?
the ability to appreciate physical situations from another persons pov
eg Piaget’s 3 mountains task and egocentrism
what is social perspective taking?
the ability to appreciate social situations from another person’s pov.
studied by Robert Selman
Describe Robert Selmans study
gave children scenarios along w questions that required them to take the perspective of others
30 boys, 30 girls, 20 4yrs, 20 5yrs, 20 6yrs
gave them a task designed to measure role taking ability. task is the explain how each person will feel if Holly does/doesnt climb the tree (fell so dad doesnt want her to, seans kitten needs saving)
what are Selman’s stages of perspective taking?
- based on answers from his study- explains way children develop ability to take diff perspectives
undifferentiated (3-6)- know self and others have diff thoughts/ feelings but confuse the 2
social-informational (4-9)- know perspectives differ because people have access to diff info
self-reflective (7-12)- can step into anothers shoes and view themself as others do, know others can do same
third-person (10-15)- can step outside immediate situation and see how they and another are viewed by 3rd person
societal (14+)- realise 3rd person perspective is influenced by broader personal, social, cultural contexts
what did Selman and La Russo 2003 add to expand original theory of social development?
1) interpersonal understanding- being able to take on diff roles shows understanding of social situations- understand how Holly, her father and Sean would feel
2) interpersonal negotiation strategies- development of social skills to avoid conflict- explaining situation to father
3) awareness of personal meaning of relationships- can reflect on social behaviour in context of life history and nature of a relationship- understand father would worry about child and protect them
evaluate Selman’s levels of perspective taking
+
clear evidence (from his study) that it improves w age (but individ diffs eg ASC)
useful in understanding atypical development eg children on spectrum often struggle perspective taking
_
overly cognitive- doesnt consider emotion skills eg development of empathy and emotional self regulation- was addressed in 2003 by additional 3 points
cultural variations in perspective taking- Wu and Keyser found Chinese children out performed American children in perspective taking tasks
what is theory of mind?
the ability to attribute mental states- beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge etc- to oneself and others to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are diff from ones own
what does Simon Baron-Cohen say is the core deficit of autism?
the inability to employ theory of mind (reductionist as autism is a spectrum)
developing a theory of mind
occurs around 4-6y
having a ToM is the ability to understand that other people have independant minds of their own
allows child to understand other people and predict what others are likely to do and believe. ability to think about other people’s/ own thoughts
what is the Sally Anne test (1983)
used to test theory of mind in young children.
tested typically developing children (4y), children with down’s syndrome (11y) and children with autism (12y)
shown scenario where Sally puts marble in basket then goes outside . whilst she’s away, Anne takes the marble and puts it in her box. Sally comes back and children asked:
‘where will sally look for her marble?’ (belief q)
‘where is the marble really?’ (reality q)
‘where was the marble at the beginning?’ (memory q)
belief q is the important one.
answer basket- appreciate that Sallys understanding of world doesnt reflect actual state of affairs
box- failed task- havent taken into account that they possess info Sally doesnt
other 2 qs are control- if got wrong, suggests child didnt understand what was going on
what were the results of the Sally-Anne task?
findings comparable for typically developing children and those with Down’s syndrome- 85% ppt correctly answered
children w autism, pass rate was 20%
for 80% that failed, they consistently pointed to actual location of marble
children who say Sally will look in box havent developed theory of mind
other studies show 4 yr say basket and 3yr say box
why isnt the Sally-Anne test effective for adults?
as children get older, they learn what correct answer should be even if they dont fully understand why
what is the 1997 reading the mind in the eyes test?
way of testing theory of mind in adults
involves inferring mental state of person just from photos of eyes- assesses mind reading which Bron Cohen argues is same as ToM
what did Baron Cohen hypothesise about people w autism and eyes task?
adults w Asperger’s couldn’t interpret states of mind from reading eyes
describe Baron Cohen’s eyes task
natural experiment (already diagnosed with autism) with a matched pairs design- matched on age and normal intelligence. (also quasi experiment as iv was ages- cant manipulate)
3 groups of ppts- 16 autistic, (13 male, 3 female), 50 neurotypical, (25 male, 25 female), 10 tourettes, (8 male, 2 female)
the 2 clinical groups (autism and tourettes) had passed 1st order ToM test at 6 year old level
shown 25 b&w 15x10 photos of eyes for 3s. ppts tested individually and asked a forced-choice question
what are the target and foil words in the eyes task?
target is correct answer and as a control was presented randomly to bottom left/right
photos picked from magazines and chosen by judges who had to be unanimous on which word describes the face
results/ conclusions of the eyes test
autistic adults (65%) were less likely to identify target than the normal (81%) or tourettes group (82%)
even at significance level of p<0.0001 normal and tourettes scored higher than typical group
concluded that there is evidence for subtle mind reading deficits in intelligent adults on autistic spectrum and that the eye task is a pure theory of mind test for adults as theres no context
evaluate the theory of mind
+
practical applications for diagnosing autistic spectrum disorders
_
sally-anne lacks validity as even some children w a ToM find false belief tasks confusing
eyes test lacks validity as irl, reading faces is only one among many non-verbal communication signs that are used to interpret states of mind. pictures lacked context and where b&w. context usually helps w interpretation. also only see for 3s
hard to distinguish ToM from perspective taking in general. is it part of perspective taking or is it just the same thing?
contradictory theories about how ToM develops. perner- innate ability that develops over time. Wilde Astington- develops as a result of social interaction
only explains cognitive deficits not savants- autism is a spectrum
what are mirror neurones?
a special class of brain cells that fire not only when an individual performs an action, but also when the individual observes someone else make the same movement
what did Giacomo Rizzalotti discover in 1990
implanted electrodes in brains of macaque monkeys to study animals brain activity during diff motor actions including clutching food
one day, he reached for his own food and noticed neurones began to fire in monkeys premotor cortex-same as when they picked up their own food
Marco Iacoboni
known for work on mirror neurones (small circuit of cells in premotor cortex and inferior parietal cortex). they collapse distinction between seeing and doing
he has shown that mirror neurones are important part of social cognition and deficits in mirror neurone system may underlie variety of mental disorders eg autism (broken mirror neurones)
mirror neurones are important in explaining development of perspective taking and ToM. from evolutionary perspective, mirror neurones facilitated complex social interactions which humans need to perform to live in societies
evaluate the role of mirror neurones in social cognition
+
link to Adrian Raine- APD as an explanation for reduced prefrontal cortex matter (is this where mirror neurones reside?)
evidence from brain scans shows areas of the brain believed to be rich in mirror neurones very active during social cognition tasks (haker et al- fMRI with yawning, mouras et al- pornography linked to sexual arousal)
_
difficult to study mirror neurones- scans only show brain activity in general, cant identify role of individual neurones in the brain
some evidence for brain abnormalities in ASC but evidence is inconsistent
do mirror neurones actually exist or are they just ordinary neurones
if mirror neurones do exists, not yet conclusive evidence that they play a role in social cognition
what are autistic spectrum conditions (ASCs)?
neurological and developmental conditions that affect how people interact with others, communication skills, and ways in which people learn and behave
more definitions in book and key words list but not sure if needed
