FOOD3000 Flashcards

Question

Colustrum: enzyme inhibitors

Answer 1

``` Enzyme inhibitors Nucleotides + nucleosides Cytokines Vitamins Minerals ```

Answer 2

High temp + high pressure and drying process denatures sensitive proteins in colostrum Low heat pasteurization and low-heat indirect drying preserves efficacy and bioactivity of colustrum

Answer 3

In infants colustrum is only source of all necessary nutrients Immunoglobulins provide primary defense mechanism against pathogenic microorganisms in GIT Colustrum as immune modulator helps in maintenances of growth in children due to presence of growth factors

Answer 4

Improves exercise performance, recovery + increases lean muscle mass IGF-1 induces protein synthesis, leading to increase in lean muscle mass without rise in adipose fat

Answer 5

Immune function, GIT integrity (GF strengthens gut lining) and neuroendocrine system

Answer 6

CLA inhibits carcinogens by controlling release of messengers which are important for cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis

Answer 7

``` Treating type 2 diabetes Bone growth and development In surgery Respiratory infections Alzheimers disease Multiple sclerosis Autoimmune disorders ```

Answer 8

Studies indicate that high percentage of orally administered IgG (19-50%) can be recovered intact and active from distal ileum in adult humans before enetering large intestine

Answer 9

colsustrum must be obtained from Australian herds or herds from countries that are BSE free, registered for milk production for human consumption Mad cow disease: transmissible spongiform encephalopathy and fatal neurodegenerative disease incattle that may be passed to humans who ingest infected flesh

Answer 10

Iron binding globular glycoprotein composed of single polypeptide chain present in various biological fluids of mamals Human colustrum has highest conc., followed by human milk, then cow milk

Answer 11

Human colustrum: Lf 7g/L Bovine colustrum: Lf: <0.1g/L Human Lf: 691 amino acids, 2 glycans Bovine Lf: 689 amino acids, 4 glycans

Answer 12

Attachment of carbohydrates to Lf reduces susceptibiliity to proteolysis and thermal denaturation

Answer 13

Folded into two homologous globular lobes, N and C, connected by short a-helix peptide. Each lobe composed of two sub lobes or domains. Areas of positive charge in lactoferrin; lower left depicts N-terminus with outside of first helix and upper middle depicts region around the connecting helix

Answer 14

Major role in regulating gut growth by: facilitating iron absorbtion antimicrobial agent stimulating growth of cell lines in vitro bovine lactofferin decreases respiratory tract infections in humans

Answer 15

Lf can bind iron reversibily with high affinity, it can exist as iron depleted (Apo) or iron saturated (Holo). Holo-Lf is more compact than Apo and more resistant to thermal denaturation and protelysis Lf with less than 5% iron saturation is termed Apo-Lf Presence of iron causes salmon pink colouration

Answer 16

Triggered by lowering ofpH.. Bovine Lf releases iron and pH below 4 Human Lf releases iron at pH below 3 Thus higher possibility of iron release by bovine Lf in upper human GIT

Answer 17

Lf shows highest level ofamylase and ATPase activites among all other milk proteins As it can bind with DNA, it can partake in transcriptional activity of specific DNA sequences

Answer 18

antimicrobial/antivirus activities immune modulatory activity and antioxidant activity These activities are possible due to capacity to bind iron and ability to interact with molecular and cellular components of hosts and pathogens

Answer 19

Extensive degrdation of Lf due to proteolysis t pH 2 Further degradation of Lf occurs in dudoenum, and by 30 min nearly all Lf is digested Lower degradation values with increase of pH

Answer 20

More than 60% Lf survived acidic environment of human stomach and entered small intestine in intact form due to short transit time in stomach Intact Lf retain biological activities and are capable of exerting various physiological effects in digestive tract and boost intestinatal immune system

Answer 21

Cheese way -> ion exchange cationic resin -> nanofiltration -> lactoferrin

Answer 22

Cosmetics (lotions, cream, face wash), oral care (mouth wash, mouth gel, toothpaste, chewing gum), food additive (preserative)

Answer 23

Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and sulphate

Answer 24

Necessary for bone formation, and together with phosphate and vitamin D they contribute to bone structure Lack of dietary calcium has been linked to osteoporosis

Answer 25

Plays important role in body processes and regulatesmany of the chemical reactions 99% of calcium is found in bony skeleton and teeth If diet does not supply enough calcium, the body breaks down skeleton to release calcium back into the blood

Answer 26

Calcium in milk is at about 65% protein bound and 35% diffusible at normal milk pH Calcium ions complexed in casein peptides are claimed to maintain the calcium in soluble form and protect it against precipiration in the intestine, facilitating absorbtion

Answer 27

Calcium phosphate will migrate in and out of casein micelle with changes in temperature This process is reversible at moderate temperatures Calcium phosphate may precipitate out of solution which causes irreversible changes in the casein micelle structure

Answer 28

Composition ofmilk/whey products dependson the type of whey used as raw material and the process technology applied for manufacturing Neutral taste + bland flavour

Answer 29

Vitamins are limited in terms of functional food positioning due to their great variability in milk Higher heat treatment causes loss of some water-soluble vitamins Exposure to light will decrease the riboflavin and vitamin A content in milk

Answer 30

Cows milk contains two types of B casein- A1/A2 Digestion of A1 can yield peptide B-casomorphin-7 that expresses opioid receptors in the GIT, causing intestinal motility disorders A2 contains a proline residue at pos67, A1 contains a histidine residue, causing the preceding seven amino acids to be cleaved

Answer 31

Reduces frequency and amplitude of intestinal contractions Increases muscus secretion Associated with neurological disorders like autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders

Answer 32

Popular supplement due to high percentage of BCAAs

Answer 33

B-lactoglobulin, a-lactoalbumin, BSA andglycomacropeptide BCAA: leucine, isoleucine and valine Cysteine, methionine Lactoferrin, Immunoglobulins (10-15% of total whey proteins), Lactoperoxidase (most ebundant enzyme in whey, has anti-bacterial properties)

Answer 34

Antioxidant and detoxifying agent linked to synthesis of glutathione (GSH) GSH- major endogenous antioxidant produced by cells providing protection for RNSA, DNA and proteins via redox cycling from GSH GSH detoxifies a host of both endogenous and exogenous toxins including toxic metals, lipid peroxides, etc.

Answer 35

Whey is considered fast, they reach small intestine quickly after entering the GIT. Once in the SI, whey undergoes slow hydrolysis which encourages greater absorbtion over length of SI Superior absorption- makes whey an ideal optional source of vital protein for those with compromised GI function

Answer 36

Belong to group of prebiotics known as Oligogalactosyl-lactose or Oligo-galactose or Oligo-lactose or Trans-galactooligosaccharides (TOS) Comprises between two and eight saccharide units (Galactose) with one of these units being terminal glucose and remaining being galactose Produced through enzymatic conversion of lactose

Answer 37

Current comercially available GOS are produced by glycoside hydrolases using lactose as substrate products Depending on oligosaccharide composition, GOS products vary in terms of their bifidogenic and other protective actions Future developments include making a purer and more efficient mixture

Answer 38

Stable in wide range of temp. + pH levels Cultivates healthy bowel flora, incorporated into variety of food beverages, meal replacers, fermented milks, flavoured milks and confectionary products

Answer 39

XO is a complex molybdoflavoenzyme that occurs as major protein compenent of milk fat globule membrane surrounding lipid droplets in cow and human milk

Answer 40

Reduces oxygen to generate reactive oxygen species, superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. Can also reduce nitrite, yielding reactive nitrogen species such as nitric oxide and peroxynitrite Ability to generate ROS and RNS plays an antimicrobial defensive role in the neonatal gut, influencing growth of pathogens

Answer 41

Refer to substances that can combat free radicals Free radicals have unpaired electron charge and are highly reactive and unstable. Can react with biological tissue causing damage Free radicals are naturally produced and can interact with DNA in cells, causing aging, etc.

Answer 42

Dietary antioxidants constitute mainly free radical scavengers that 1) they directly neutralize free radicals, 2) they reduce the peroxide concentrations and repair oxidized membranes, 3) they quench iron to decrease ROS production

Answer 43

Dietary antioxidants of substantial improtance for immune system function are vitamin A, C and E

Answer 44

B-carotene retionol is the main fat soluble vitamin obtained from the diet by humans , synthesised in body from B carotene Natural sources include: carrot, squash, brocolli, sweet potato, tomato, kale, mango, orange, peach, apricot Plays essential role in anti-inflammatory

Answer 45

Ascorbic acid Water soluble, not synthesised in humans Sources: citrus fruits, green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, black currant, strawberries, raw cabbages + tomatoes Accumulates in mitochondria where most free radicals are produced Increases cytokine production and immunoglobulin synthesis

Answer 46

Fat soluble, protexts lipids Family of eight antioxidants- four tocopherols and four tocotrienols Sourcesl Wheat, germ, seeds, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, kiwifruit, vegetable oil, fish-liver oil A-tocopherol is the only form in which vitamin E is consumed + actively maintained in the human body Maintains cell membrane integrity, preevnting lipid peroxidation by scavenging free radicals

Answer 47

The different procedures for removal of fat-soluble vitamins from their matrices using (1) organic solvent extraction (either liquid–liquid and solid – liquid extraction) (2) *Supercritical fluid extraction (as an alternative to conventional extraction methods) (3) Solid-phase extraction Extraction with CO2 is considered very suitable for extracting fat soluble substances from different matrices as supercritical CO2 has a high dissolving power.

Answer 48

Bioavailability: the relative absorption of a nutrient from the ingested material that reach circulatory system for further delivery into designated tissues so that the beneficial compounds are biologically available for exerting healthy functions. • Some foods contain inhibitors of vitamin utilization, which reduce solubility or release. • Proteinase inhibitors in some raw fruits and vegetables can affect vitamin absorption, as can substances which reduce bile acid reabsorption

Answer 49

Chemicals that mainly evolved to protect the plant | Basic structures of phytochemicals based on structures are phenolics, terpenes, lipids, betalins, organosulfides

Answer 50

Term used to describe food with high phytonutrient content that may confer health benefits It is a marketing term

Answer 51

Marketing term first used in food and beverage industry in 2005 Business strategy of growers/manufacturers: market science and potential health value to consumers, achieve currency in consumers minds of product as source of health, influence buying decisions and food choices on the basis of health

Answer 52

• Innate health qualities • Scientific evidence supporting a potential health benefit • Marketing to inform consumers • Protection of intellectual property or monopoly to protect marketing investment • Novelty or an appealing strategy to attract consumers • Convenience format to appeal to consumers • Reliable supply of raw material and product availability • Effective promotion.

Answer 53

* Blueberry (Vaccinium sp.) * Cranberry (Vaccinium sp.) * Noni (Morinda citrifolia) * Goji (wolfberry Lycium barbarum) * Açaí (Euterpe oleracea) , Brazil, Venezuela * Grape/wine (red, Vitis vinifera) * Mango (Mangifera indica) * Pomegranate (Punica granatum) * Sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) * Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)

Answer 54

• Vaccinium sp. • Very high antioxidant content • Anticancer and anti- inflammation activity • Lower cholesterol and total blood lipid levels, possibly affecting symptoms of heart disease • Enhanced memory and learning in older adults. • Ability to delay or improve loss of brain and neuromotor function associated with aging

Answer 55

``` Phenolics - e.g. Flavonoids Terpenes - e.g. Carotenoids Thiols - e.g. sulforaphane, glucosinolates ```

Answer 56

Plant secondary metabolites generated as defence molscules against UV exposure Polyphenolic compounds include: Non-flavonoids, flavonoids

Answer 57

Group of polyphenic compounds consisting of 15 carbons with 2 aromatic rings Flavonoids are most important from a nutritional standpoint Flavonols are most abundant in foods Quercetin (main type) is popular flavonoid found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves and grains

Answer 58

Class of flavonoids with an O containing ketone group Flavanols are present in glycosylated forms bound to carbs such as glucose and galactose, eg: onions, leeks, brocolli, blueberries, apples

Answer 59

Present in monomeric forms as catechines- catechin and epicatechin are main flavanols in fruit which gallocatechin, epigallocatechin and epigallocatechin gallate are common in some seeds, grapes and tea

Answer 60

Less common flavanol found in parsley, celery, wheat, and citrus fruits

Answer 61

Type of flavanoid, various aromatic, colourless ketones derived from flavone that often occur in plants as glycosides Also present in citrus fruit, grapefruit, oranges and lemons

Answer 62

Type of naturally occuring isoflavanoids Have structural similarities to steroids that translate into some functional activities and are classified as phytoestrogens

Answer 63

Common plant pigment responsible for fruit, vegetable and flower pigmentation

Answer 64

Major flavonoid in our daily diet | Mainly occurs as glycosides, ethers and glycosylation of quercetin increases its stability and bioavailability

Answer 65

Anti-Cancer (Can inhibit cell proliferation and angiogenesis and induce apoptosis and cellular senescence.), Cardiovascular protection (antioxidative, antiplatelet, enhancer of cardiac cell mitochondrial function), Neurodegenerative diseases (Oxidative stress is responsible for Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s & Huntington’s disease. Brain is highly susceptible to oxidative stress.)

Answer 66

Reactive oxygen species in organisms are continually generated within cells as consequence of normal aerobic metabolism and as an immune system strategy to eliminate invading agents

Answer 67

Increased ROS production/impaired and insufficient antioxidative defence --> damage to biomolecules All major classes of biomolecules are vulnerable to free radical damage ``` Free radicals cause strand breaks in DNA, which potentially can lead to subsequent misrepair and tumour cell generation. ``` ``` In addition, the continuous generation of ROS may also cause oxidative damage to lipids or proteins, and consequently their accumulation may lead to the oxidative destruction of cells ```

Answer 68

Moderate exercise = 70% of max heart rate intensity -> exercise-induced oxidative stress/acute and inflammation ->Activation of endogenous antioxidant enzyme or maintaining or boosting body’s ability to tolerate future oxidative stress & inflammation

Answer 69

/Extensive Exercise --> Damaged Skeletal Muscle --> Excessive oxidative stress/ inflammation & also hypoxia*-induced oxidative stress/ inflammation causing muscle damage --> Muscle damage/reduced immune efficacy with eventual immune suppression & increased susceptibility to infection and reduced ability to recover from injury

Answer 70

• Cells and tissues have developed an “Endogenous antioxidant system” to restrict the potential of oxidative stress mediated by ROS/RNS. A non-enzymatic system involving thiolcontaining molecules such as reduced glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin and enzymatic systems such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase neutralize ROS/RNS via direct interaction • A central signalling molecule/nuclear factor (erythroidderived 2)-like 2, also known as NFE2L2 or Nrf 2 may have an important role in this adaptive antioxidant response and the regulation of inflammation. • Nrf 2 is activated upon exposure to oxidative stress and binds to the antioxidant response element of the genes of antioxidant enzymes and combats the stress. • Polyphenolic compounds can mediate changes in these regulatory processes and other key inflammation

Answer 71

Placebo/Quercetin supplementation.. Quercetin caused significatnly greater net distance achieved in cycling

Answer 72

Polyphenols not absorbed in the stomach or small bowel will be carried to the colon. In addition, polyphenols that are absorbed, metabolized in the liver and excreted in the bile will also reach the colon. 2. The colon contains 1012 microorganisms/cm3 that breaks down the polyphenols to simpler form that are absorbed by the tissues.

Answer 73

1. Microwave assisted extraction (MAE): Because water within the plant matrix absorbs microwave energy, the internal superheating promotes cell disruption, which facilitates desorption of chemicals from the matrix, improving the eruption of the nutraceuticals 2. Subcritical water extraction & beta-glucosidases hydrolysis: Pressurized hot water to extract & then hydrolysis by beta-glucosidases (can resist temperature up to 90ºC).

Answer 74

Subclass of phytochemicals called terpene Group of naturally occurring fat-soluble pigments found in plants Provide red, orange and yellow colours of plant leaves, fruits and flowers Humans cannot synthesize cartenoids and hence obtain them from dietary sources

Answer 75

Most potent antioxidant among all carotenoids Tomato Lycopene is not destroyed during food processing and heat improves bioavailaibility Con-consumption of lycopene with oil also improves boavailability

Answer 76

The antioxidant properties are mainly associated with their singlet oxygen quenching properties (can trap singlet oxygen and reduce mutagenesis) & their radical scavenging abilities [decreases the potential stress of reactive oxygen species (ROS)]. Studies have also reported that lycopene is able to increase activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), thereby can reduce cellular oxidative stress

Answer 77

Solvent extraction or Supercritical CO2 extraction of lycopene are the two common methods Tomato variety with high lycopene content (150 to 250 mg/kg) are used. The tomatoes are crushed into crude tomato juice and then separated into serum and pulp. The tomato pulp is then extracted with ethyl acetate. The final product is obtained after solvent removal by evaporation under vacuum at 40-60°C. Further quantification by HPLC Temperature is one of the most important characteristic for increased lycopene production, as it improves the availability of lycopene from the cell wall and helps to remove moisture without destructing lycopene or other nutrients present.

Answer 78

Class of compounds found in Cruciferus vegetables (sulforaphane or isothiocyanates) and Garlic (allium)

Answer 79

Sulforaphane is a compound within the isothiocyanate group of organosulfur compounds. The biologically active compounds, isothiocyanates associated with positive health benefits. Sulforaphane is found in many cruciferous vegetables- Broccoli, Cabbage, Cauliflower and Brussels sprouts.

Answer 80

Sulforaphane is formed indirectly when sulfurcontaining molecules present in crucifers, called glucosinolates are hydrolysed in the body by plant enzymes called myrosinases to isothiocyanates (sulforaphane). The benefits of sulforaphane are only released from plants when the food is chewed, causing the plant tissues to break down leading to the reaction between myrosinase and glucoraphanin (rich in Young sprouts of broccoli and cauliflower).

Answer 81

``` • Anticancer activity activated by myrosinase Multiple products can be formed Not all active Control by Enzyme Specifer Protein (ESP) • Activation by multiple mechanism Heat Chewing Gut flora • Destroyed by excessive heating/boiling 2-4 minutes optimum ```

Answer 82

Glucosinolates in brocolli -> Enzymatic breakdown -> isothiocyanate (potent anti-cancer properties) + nitrile (no anti-cancer properties)

Answer 83

Glucosinolates in radish -> enzymatic breakdown -> isothiocyanate (potent anti-cancer properties)

Answer 84

Most active compound found in garlic is allicin Only exists as biologically active compounds when garlic is crushed or cut, when enzyme allinase can metabolize allin to allicin • Allicin is reactive and degrades very quickly, not present in aged extracts • Alliin is the main sulfur compound in both raw garlic and garlic powder. • Crushed raw garlic is high in allicin, containing ∼37 mg/g. • Allyl mercaptan is an odorous compound that is the main component of garlic • Allyl and methyl sulfides are main components of commercial garlic oils

Answer 85

``` Antimicrobial activity Anticancer activity Antioxidant activity Reducing cardiovascular diseases Lipid metabolism ```

Answer 86

• Phytosterols are cholesterol-like substances that occur naturally at low levels in fruits, vegetables, nuts and cereals. • Used as a food ingredient with cholesterol-lowering properties • Reduces cholesterol absorption in intestines • FSANZ approved claim for phytosterols: “When eaten at the recommended amount, between 2 and 3 grams a day, plant sterols can reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in our blood”. • Most people obtain between 150 and 360 milligrams of plant sterols daily, depending on diet.

Answer 87

Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD) Reduction in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol was in the range of 10–15% when daily doses of 1–3 g (based on free phytosterols) of sterol esters were used. Mechanism The mechanism proposed suggest competition between phytosterols and cholesterol for micellar solubilisation based on similarities in their chemical structures. Phytosterols have higher affinity for micelles than has cholesterol. Subsequently, phytosterols lower solubility of cholesterol, displace it from the mixed micelle and inhibit its absorption.

Answer 88

Plant sterols can be extracted from vegetable oil deodorizer distillate (VOD) at high temperature & vacuums. VOD is a by-product obtained during the vegetable oil refining process. Process: seperation (distallation), conversion (transesterification reaction), seperation (distillation), crystallization + evaporation

Answer 89

FSANZ approved use of sterol esters derived from tall oil for enrichment of cheese Cheese should contain no more than 12% fat and between 70-90 g/kg total plant sterol esters

Answer 90

range of not less than 3g/L and not more than 4g/L may be added to milk that contains not more than 1.5% total fat

Answer 91

a substance not normally consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as an ingredient of food, but which, after extraction and/or refinement, or synthesis, is intentionally added to a food to achieve a nutritional purpose, and includes vitamins, minerals, amino acids, electrolytes and nucleotides. For example: Purified or synthesized Resveratrol extract

Answer 92

(a) a food that does not have a history of human consumption in Australia or NZ; or (b) a substance derived from a food, where that substance does not have a history of human consumption in Australia or NZ other than as a component of that food; or (c) any other substance, where that substance, or the source from which it is derived, does not have a history of human consumption as a food in Australia or NZ.

Answer 93

a non-traditional food and the food requires an assessment of the public health and safety considerations having regard to – (a) the potential for adverse effects in humans; or (b) the composition or structure of the food; or (c) the process by which the food has been prepared; or (d) the source from which it is derived; or (e) patterns and levels of consumption of the food; or (f) any other relevant matters a novel food must not be sold as a food or food ingredient unless it has been approved by FSANZ

Answer 94

A claim must not: (a) refer to the prevention, diagnosis, cure or alleviation of a disease, disorder or condition; or (b) compare a food with a good that is: (i) represented in any way to be for therapeutic use; or (ii) likely to be taken to be for therapeutic use, whether because of the way in which the good is presented or for any other reason.

Answer 95

Nutrition content claim- compositional thresholds General level health claim- pre-approved, self substantiated-notify FSANZ, must meet nutrient profile score High level health claim- must be pre-approved, must meet nutrient profile score

Answer 96

``` F = BP – VP – PP – FP Where: F is the final score. BP is the number of baseline points. VP is the number of V points. PP is the number of P points. FP is the number of F points. ``` Baseline Points – BP (Nutrients PER 100g or 100mL) •Energy kJ •Saturated Fatty Acids g •Total Sugars g •Sodium mg •Protein g •Fibre g (not in beverages) •Calcium (only for Class 3 – Cheese products) Fruit & Vegetable Points – VP means fruits, vegetables, nuts and legumes including coconut, spices, herbs, fungi, seeds and algae Protein Points – PP means points scored for average quantity of protein in a ‘unit quantity of the food’ Fibre Points – FP means points scored for average quantity of dietary fibre in a ‘unit quantity of the food’

Answer 97

High level health claims refer to a nutrient or substance in a food and its relationship to a serious disease or to a biomarker of a serious disease. For example: Diets high in calcium may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in people 65 years and over. Biomarker health claim is: Phytosterols may reduce blood cholesterol.

Answer 98

– Health maintenance, including nutritional support; – Vitamin or mineral supplementation; and – Relief of symptoms (not related to a named disease, disorder or condition).

Answer 99

– Health enhancement; – Reduction of risk of a disease / disorder / condition; – Reduction in frequency of a discrete event; – Aids / assists in the management of a named symptom / disease / disorder / condition; and – Relief of symptoms of a named disease, disorder or condition

Answer 100

• Refer to serious diseases or disorders or which relate to: – Treatment, cure or management of any disease / disorder / condition; – Prevention of any disease, disorder or condition; – Treatment of a specific named vitamin or mineral deficiency diseases. Note: – – Can only make high level claims for Registerable medicines – AUS R Listable medicines cannot carry high level claims – AUST L Prohibited – Neoplastic (Cancer) – except sunscreen – Abortive action – HIV Aids / STD – Mental Illness

Answer 101

``` Fiber Inulin B-glucan Resistant starch Phenolics Carotenoids Vit E ```

Answer 102

Secretion: Saliva Digestive Glands: Salivary Glands Enzyme: Amylase Action: Starch -> maltose

Answer 103

Secretion: Gastric juice Digestive Glands: Glands in stomach wall Enzyme: Protease Action: Proteins -> polypeptides

Answer 104

Secretion: Bile Digestive Glands: Liver Enzyme: No digestive enzyme, fat is emulsified Action: Breaks fat into small oil droplets Secretion: Pancreatic juice Digestive Glands: Pancreas Enzyme: Amylase, Trypsin, Lipase Action: starch > maltose, polypeptides > peptides, E. fats > fatty acid + glycerol

Answer 105

Secretion: Intestinal juice Digestive Glands: Intestinal glands Enzyme: Maltose, sucrose, lactase, erepsin, lipase Action: Maltose > glucose, sucrose > glucose + fructose, Lactose > glucose + galactose, Peptide > amino acids, E fat > fatty acids + glycerol

Answer 106

Dietary fibre means that fraction of the edible part of plants or their extracts, or synthetic analogues that – (a) are resistant to the digestion and absorption in the small intestine, – usually with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine; and (b) promote one or more of the following beneficial physiological effects – – (i) laxation; – (ii) reduction in blood cholesterol; – (iii) modulation of blood glucose; – and includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides (degree of polymerisation > 2) and lignins

Answer 107

Soluble: beta glucans in oats Insoluble: cellulose in wheat bran Reistant starch

Answer 108

``` • Restrict gelatinisation of starch – Cell walls encapsulating the starch • Delayed gastric emptying – Viscosity, bulking effect • Decrease the intestinal transit times – In presence of fibres, food moves faster in small intestine • Barrier to digestive enzymes – Fibres acts are physical barrier – Enzyme interacts with fibres – Fibres encapsulating the starch • Decrease the absorption of nutrients ( thicker absorptive layer) ```

Answer 109

1. Hypothesis 1: SDF increases the barrier properties of the unstirred layer between micelles & intestinal absorptive cells 2. Hypothesis 2: SDF & BS are associated / complexed at a molecular level 3. Hypothesis 3: SDF forms a local matrix that entraps BS micelles

Answer 110

``` Constipation: Delayed passage of faeces through the intestine Laxative : Milder actions, elimination of soft but formed stools ```

Answer 111

• For digestive health – Regular soft bowel movements – Satiety and weight management – Anti-cancer and anti-cholesterol activity • Dietary fibre is found in the indigestible parts of plants – Not adsorbed in small intestine – Stimulate microbial growth in the large intestine/colon • Good dietary sources include – Wholegrain foods – Fruits and vegetables • Added as a functional ingredient to many functional food and nutraceuticals

Answer 112

``` • Prebiotics effect – Forms butyrate • Bulking and viscosifying effect – Increase of viscosity leads to reduced absorption of cholesterol – Bulking gives satiety effect • Mineral chelator • Little hard health evidence ```

Answer 113

``` • From several members of the plant genus Plantago – Seeds are used commercially for the production of mucilage – India dominates the world market in the production and export of psyllium – Has arisen primarily due to its use as an ingredient in high-fibre breakfast cereals – Claimed to be effective in reducing blood cholesterol levels in those who consume it ``` * Sold in powder form as well as capsules and formulated functional foods * Stool softness and regularity effect * Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptom prevention * Mixed evidence of efficacy for IBS * FDA recommends 7 grams per day seed husk

Answer 114

• Soluble fibres found in cereal grains such as barley,oats • Cell wall component of yeast and fungi • Beta-glucans ((1 → 3),(1 → 4) beta-D-glucan) are large linear polysaccharides of glucose units, connected by (1 → 3) or (1 → 4)-beta linkages • Barley is the richest cereal source of natural beta-glucan

Answer 115

• Different modes of action in different parts of the body – Small intestine • Beta-glucan forms a highly viscous solution that slows down the absorption of cholesterol, fatty acids, bile acids and glucose • Lowers levels in the blood. In response to lower blood glucose levels, insulin levels are also reduced. • Viscosity in the small intestine mediates the cholesterol-lowering and glucose-lowering properties of beta-glucan – Large intestine • Is prebiotic, which stimulates the growth of desirable bacteria and limits the growth of potentially harmful organisms. • Beneficial bacteria ferment beta-glucan to produce volatile fatty acids, which are used by the cells lining the intestine to protect against bowel disease.

Answer 116

``` Insoluble fibres – Structural components cell walls – Main component of brans • Hard outer layer of grains • Bran tablets, Allbran – Cellulose powders used as fillers in food tablets – Fruit fibre supplements • Pectin, cellulose hemicelluose – Not proven to help heart or anti-cancer activity – Effect on regularity and stool softness • Constipation prevention • Haemorrhoid prevention ```

Answer 117

• Short chain fatty acids (SCFA’s) produced as fermentation products of dietary fibres – Major types: Acetic, propionic acid, butyric acid – Minor types: Valeric, isovaleric acid • Used – By bacteria for growth – Butyrate is the major energy source for colonocytes – SCFA’s absorbed by colonic mucosa pas to portal circulatory system – Propionate metabolised in liver – Acetate metabolised in tissues

Answer 118

1st half of Small Intestine= rapidly digested Slowly digested throughout the small intestine REsistant in the large intestine

Answer 119

1: physically inaccessible 2: resistant granules eg. raw starches (potato, banana, etc.) 3: retrograded starch- cooked and cooled starches 4: chemically modified starch 5: amylose- lipid complex

Answer 120

• Prebiotic – Substance to beneficially stimulate natural flora e.g. dietary fibres • Probiotic – Added new microbial strain with beneficial activities

Answer 121

``` • Synbiotics are a term which covers the combination of prebiotics and probiotics • Reflect that the health activity of both is complementary • Marketing not a regulatory term ```

Answer 122

Good Source: serving of food that contains at least 4g of dietary fibre Excellent source: serving contains at least 7g of dietary fibre Increased: (a) The reference food contains at least 2 g of dietary fibre per serving; and (b) the food contains at least 25% more dietary fibre than in the same amount of reference food.

Answer 123

Natural: grains/fruit Processed: pasta Formed: viscous meal

Answer 124

a product that has every part of the grain (outer layers, bran, germ and endosperm) even if these parts are separated during processing.

Answer 125

The WGC, the AACC International, or the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) do not consider oilseeds and legumes (such as flax, chia, sunflower seeds, soy, chickpeas, etc.) as whole grains

Answer 126

• Naturally occurring fiber-intrinsic • Vegetables • whole grains • Fruits • cereal bran, flaked cereal and flours • The fibres are also considered to be “intact” because they have not been removed from the food. • Foods containing these fibres have been shown to be beneficial, • Manufacturers do not need to demonstrate that they provide beneficial physiological effects to human health.”

Answer 127

``` Beta glucan: whole grains, cereal bran Psyllium husk: beans, cocoa powder Cellulose: Berries, vegetable protein extracts Guar gum: nuts + seeds, purees Pectin: barley Locust bean gum: asparagus ```

Answer 128

• “Refined grain” is the term used to refer to grains that are not whole • because they are missing one or more of their three key parts (bran, germ, or endosperm). • White flour and white rice are refined grains, for instance, because both have had their bran and germ removed, leaving only the endosperm

Answer 129

• When these herbs are provided in the form of a capsule, powder, softgel, gelcap, or other form that is not represented as a conventional food, these products are considered neutraceuticals are regulated by TGA

Answer 130

``` Functional foods: • Delivery form usually food • Usually have a lower price structure – Price relates to food prices with a margin for added benefits • Usually regulated by FSANZ ``` ``` Nutraceuticals: • Usually pill or potion • Can have a higher price up to 5 or 10x more expensive – Reflects the cost of the extract or added benefit • Usually regulated by TGA ```

Answer 131

The Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods

Answer 132

Ingredients: Ginkolides: flavonoid glycosides, and diterpene lactones Function: memory, cognition

Answer 133

Ingredients: Hypericin, pseudohypericin, hyperforins, terpenes, catechintype tannins, proanthocyanidins Function: Antidepressant for mild to moderate depression

Answer 134

Ingredients: Kavalactones Function: Antianxiety, relaxation

Answer 135

Ingredients: Amygdalin, crategolic acid, oligomeric proanthocyanadins Function: Cardiac insufficiency

Answer 136

Functions: Echinosides, caffeic, ferulic acids and cichoric acid, inulin and fructans Function: immunomodulators

Answer 137

Ingredients: Menthol Function: Antiemetic, nausea

Answer 138

Ingredients: Glycyrrhetic acid, triterpene, saponins Function: Expectorant

Answer 139

Ingredients: Β -sitosterol, sterols, fatty acids Functions: alpha reductase inhibitors

Answer 140

Ingredients: Sesquiterpene lactones Function: Migraine prophylactic

Answer 141

• Solid - liquid extractions or liquid-liquid extractions – Use of solvents to extract actives e.g. from plants • Polysaccharides extracted in water • Polyphenols extracted in alcohol • Fats and lipids in hexane, ethyl acetate, Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) • Extraction dissolves many compounds • Fractionation and purification needed to achieve desired activity • Throughput is governed by the Rate Limiting Step – For solid-liquid extraction this is normally rate of diffusion through pores of solid material into the solvent – Speed up mass transfer • Smaller particles sizes for extraction • Higher temperatures for faster diffusion

Answer 142

``` – Permitted solvent list • Varies by country – Flammability issues • Flame proof plants needed – Selectivity issues • Mixtures hard to recycle – Cost of recycle • Cannot dispose to waste – Regulatory issues • Chlorinated and fluorocarbons restricted • Waste disposal issues – Consumer acceptance of solvent • Fear of residues, first press virgin preferred • Green? ```

Answer 143

– Processing aid is substance used in the processing of raw materials, foods or ingredients, to fulfil a technological purpose relating to treatment and – The substance is used in the course of manufacture of a food at the lowest level necessary to achieve a function in the processing of that food, irrespective of any maximum permitted level specified – General p

Answer 144

– Permitted antifoam agents – Permitted catalysts – Permitted decolourants, clarifying, filtration and adsorbent agents – Permitted desiccating preparations – Permitted ion exchange resins – Permitted lubricants, release and anti-stick agents – Permitted carriers, solvents and diluents – Permitted bleaching agents, washing and peeling agents – Permitted extraction solvents – Permitted processing aids with miscellaneous functions – Permitted enzymes

Answer 145

``` • Supercritical fluids – Carbon dioxide under supercritical conditions behaves like an organic solvent – Under pressure can be used to dissolve targeted compounds – Recovery by dropping pressure and boiling off the solvent – No organic solvent residues ```

Answer 146

Pressurizing-> depressurizing

Answer 147

Camellia sinensis

Answer 148

• Polyphenols (Catechins, Theaflavin, Thearubigins, Gallic acid)* • Alkaloids (Caffeine, Theobromine, Theophylline)* • Polysaccharides* • Amino acids (Theanine)*

Answer 149

• White tea is prepared from green tea buds covered with silvery hairs. • The buds are immediately steamed or heat-dried (firing/roasting in a pan) to prevent enzymatic degradation and oxidation of polyphenols. • White tea undergoes the least amount of processing. This may account for higher concentration of polyphenol, including the catechins • EGCG, the major constituent of tea catechins, is found in higher concentrations in white tea than green tea. • White tea has more antimutagenic activity than green tea. • Comparing white tea and green tea standardized to contain the same amount of EGCG and total catechin, white tea is more effective than green tea in inducing apoptosis of human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells.

Answer 150

• Green tea is dried shoots. It is minimally oxidized and non-fermented tea thus the leaves remain green. • Green tea comprises more than 20% of the tea products sold and has the highest annual increase in consumption. • China is the largest producer and consumer of green tea ~73% of world production • Green tea processing involves plucking, postharvest spreading, fixing, rolling, shaping and drying • Catechins are responsible for the health claims of green tea -antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. • Caffeine contributes to green tea’s stimulant properties while the amino acid theanine contributes to its relaxing properties. • Epigallocatechin-3 gallate (EGCG), the main component considered good for one's health which is preserved in green tea but lost in oolong and black varieties when fermented • The main flavour descriptors of green tea are bitter and sweet

Answer 151

• To produce oolong tea, the leaves are subjected to a shorter fermentation processes compared to Black tea • The monomeric flavan-3-ols undergoes polymerization and forms bisflavanols, theaflavins, thearubigins, and other oligomer complexes*. • Six catechins have been identified in oolong tea Catechin, Gallocatechin, Epicatechin, Epicatechin gallate, Epigallocatechin and Epigallocatechin gallate

Answer 152

• To produce black tea, the leaves are fermented (browning reaction due to enzymatic reactions) • The monomeric flavan-3-ols undergoes polymerization and forms bisflavanols, theaflavins, thearubigins, and other oligomer complexes*. • Theaflavins and Thearubigins, responsible for the characteristic aroma and colour of black and oolong teas • ~ 76-78% of the tea produced and consumed worldwide is black tea

Answer 153

Flavan-3-ols, flavones, flavonols Catechins- major phenolic constituents in tea Theaflavin, Thearubigins, gallic acid

Answer 154

• Catechin and Epicatechin are isomers which mean they have the same molecular formula but have a different structure or arrangement of those atoms. • Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. Catechin and Epicatechin Epigallocatechin (EGC) and Gallocatechin (GC) Catechin gallate (CG) and Epicatechin gallate (ECG), Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and Gallocatechin gallate (GCG)

Answer 155

``` Antioxidant polyphenols Formed from the condensation of flavan-3- ols in tea leaves during the enzymatic oxidation of black tea. Reddish in colour ```

Answer 156

Thearubigin are polymeric polyphenols Formed during the enzymatic oxidation and condensation of two gallocatechins (epigallocatechin & epigallocatechin gallate) with polyphenol oxidases during the fermentation reactions in black tea. Thearubigins are red in colour and are responsible for much of the staining effect of tea. However, the colour of a black tea, is also due to theaflavins.

Answer 157

Infuse water with the soluble polyphenols, alkaloids (methylxanthines, caffeine and theophylline), aromas, flavours, and other substances from dried green tea. Brewing method: For a cup of green tea 2 g of green tea in 55 mL of water hot water (60°C - 80°C) for 1 to 2 min

Answer 158

 The leaf-to-water ratio (wt/wt), infusion time, and water temperature affects the concentration of polyphenols and the alkaloids in the brew. Lower leaf-to-water ratio and increased water temperature increase extraction efficiency. The alkaloids are extracted more efficiently than the polyphenols. Loose-leaf extraction is more efficient than the use of tea bags.

Answer 159

The green tea extract concentrates the flavonoids, methylxanthines (caffeine, theophylline, etc.), proteins, amino acids, aromas, and flavours. Preparation Add 500 g of green tea leaves to 500 mL of boiling water and steep for 30 min. The leaves are again steeped in 500 mL of water; the aliquots are combined, cooled, filtered and then then spray-dried Some use ethanol/water solvent or supercritical liquid carbon dioxide for extraction. Herbs/plants may be added to green tea leaves before the extraction process to make phytopharmaceutics.

Answer 160

Ingestion of 300mL single dose of black or green tea significantly increased catechins in plasma after 60 minutes in 24 volunteers Green tea= higher conc. than black tea

Answer 161

Consumption of green or black tea resulted in increase in FRAP Addition of milk had no effect

Answer 162

Plasma levels of catechins differ after consumption of black tea compared to green tea, but the plasma antioxidant potential difference is not large. This is because a portion of the theaflavins and thearubigins in black tea are rapidly absorbed, and contribute to the increase in antioxidant potential

Answer 163

Tea consumption increases plasma antioxidant capacity. Tea polyphenols, including catechins, are effective scavengers of reactive oxygen species in vitro. Reduces oxidative stress especially oxidative DNA damage

Answer 164

The oxidation of LDL cholesterol, which is a risk factor for heart disease and atherosclerosis, may be inhibited by tea but the mechanisms remain uncertain. Clinical trials show inconsistent results in the effect of green tea on lipid levels, blood pressure, and coronary artery disease. Oolong tea is able to lower the levels of triglyceride better than green tea or black tea

Answer 165

Many studies suggest an inverse relationship between green tea intake and the risk of a variety of cancers, although other studies have found no association. Dietary, environmental, and population differences may account for these inconsistencies. Oolong tea extracts have a chemopreventive action and prevents the development of cancer and has greater antimutagenic effect than green tea and black tea

Answer 166

Several small clinical trials have investigated the effect of green tea on weight loss and weight management. Some controlled trials suggest a benefit from green tea, whereas others do not.

Answer 167

The polyphenols EC, ECG, and EGCG can inhibit the Na+/glucose cotransporter response, and result in lower glucose concentration

Answer 168

Oxidative damage to DNA, lipids and proteins contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer and neurodegenative diseases. The polyphenols found in green and black tea are very effective antioxidants in vitro, and may therefore be active as antioxidants in the body.

Answer 169

Tea’s polyphenols chelate iron that inhibits iron absorption and ironinduced peroxidation. • Tea decreases iron absorption by ~30%; both green and black tea have inhibitory properties. Black tea slightly more potent, due the difference in polyphenol concentrations and structures in black tea. • Tea prevents iron-induced peroxidation, that could have a protective effect on the occurrence of obesity, liver or cardio vascular diseases. • Tea drinking has been proposed as a therapy to the treatment of genetic diseases characterized by iron accumulation (hemochrotasis, thalassemia).

Answer 170

Arabica 0.8 -1.4% caffeine | Robusta 1.7- 4% caffeine

Answer 171

Wet Method In wet processing, the flesh of the cherry is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented and soaked in water for ~2 days. Dry Method Dry processing, also known as unwashed or natural coffee. The entire cherry after harvest is first cleaned and then placed or spread out in the open sun for drying for 2–3 weeks and turned regularly for even drying. Inexpensive and simpler method.

Answer 172

ROASTING After wet/dry processing, the seeds are roasted; that browns the seeds due to caramelization, which breaks down starches into simple sugars GRADING Coffee is graded on the basis of Size of the bean, Place of origin, especially altitude, Process of plucking and preparation, Taste, and Cup quality SHELF-LIFE Most of the coffee experts agree that green coffee peaks in flavour and freshness within 1 year of its harvest because overly aged green coffee beans lose much of their essential oil content

Answer 173

Unroasted coffee beans

Answer 174

``` Obesity, Type 2 diabetes, Hypertension, Hepatic injury, Cirrhosis, Colorectal cancer, Liver cancer, Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) ```

Answer 175

Chlorogenic acid(hydroxycinamic acids) and caffiene

Answer 176

* Alkaloids, * Trigonelline, * Proteins, * Amino acids, and * Carbohydrates. Other bioactive components found in green coffee are the methylxanthines-caffeine (CAF), theobromine and theophylline

Answer 177

Chlorogenic acid Important source of dietary polyphenol, it comprises caffeic acid, ferulic acid, coumaric acid, and 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid. CGA is bitter in taste at lower conc. but sour in taste at higher conc. Chlorogenic acid levels are low in robusta compared with arabica mroe than 70% of CGA is destroyed at roasting temp.

Answer 178

CGA reduces food cravings, reduces daily calorie intake, and induces body fat loss by thermogenesis. CGA assists the liver in processing the fatty acids more efficiently reducing hepatic triglycerides levels, thus resulting in weight loss. In addition, chlorogenic acid may also reduce proliferation of new fat cells through its antioxidant effects

Answer 179

Free radicals induce damage to macromolecules (proteins, lipids & DNA). The free radicals, if left un-neutralized, cause prolonged oxidative stress, which ultimately results in development of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and premature aging. Proposed Mechanism The bioavailable polyphenol, CGA significantly decreases ROS production and restore glutathione levels and activity of antioxidant enzymes.

Answer 180

Proposed Mechanism CGA appears to slow, but not prevent, absorption of glucose from human gut by its action as an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, therefore reducing the insulin spike after meals in type 2 diabetic patients. CGA also acts by inhibiting glucose-6-phosphatase enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. When glycogenolysis is inhibited, the body gets its energy from fat cells and the blood sugar level decreases, along with a decrease in body weight .

Answer 181

Green coffee bean extract reduces visceral fat and homocysteine levels in blood plasma and inhibits lipid and LDL degradation and clumping of blood platelets to improve blood circulation all over the body, thus preventing hardening of the arteries. This is attributed to Ferulic acid, a metabolic component of CGA, that improves release of nitric oxide that regulates vasoconstriction and vasodilatation and keeps blood vessels open, controls hypertension, reduces the risk of atherosclerosis (plaques that are made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium and other substances, build up in artery walls), and thus helps to prevent stroke and coronary heart disease.

Answer 182

Antiaging and Cosmetic Effects Free radicals, the by-products of metabolism, destroy cell membranes and result in aging. Chlorogenic acids present in GCB destroy free radicals and thus have regenerative properties and slow the process of aging Immunomodulator It modulates the immune system and acts as an antiallergic by inhibiting histamine release and by improving oxygen utilization

Answer 183

Psychostimulant Works as a mild nervous chemical stimulant towards drowsiness and fatigue Can improve cognitive skills

Answer 184

• Caffeine causes addiction, anxiety, insomnia, coronary artery disease, osteoporosis, gastritis, anaemia, still-births and other behavioural changes.

Answer 185

``` Coronary heart disease Risk of stroke Osteoporosis and Hip fracture Impaired iron and zinc absorption and Pregnancy-related problems Symptoms of asthma and Allergic conjunctivitis ```

Answer 186

1. Physiologically active compounds (provide physiological benefits, e.g. Vasodilation, anti-inflammatory effects) 2. Antioxidants (also physiologically active in the body) (Free radical scavengers)

Answer 187

* Dark Chocolate * Natural Cocoa powder * Milk chocolate

Answer 188

• Enhanced endothelium dependent vasodilation ( plasma epicatechin conc.) • Lesser risk of cardiovascular disease ( serum total antioxidant capacity) • Dark chocolate exerts its benefits due to plasma total antioxidant capacity) • Anti-inflammatory effects of flavonoids (can be measured as reduction in platelet and endothelial cell activation). • Procyanidins contribute to anti-inflammatory effects by stimulating production of cytokines.

Answer 189

Dark: Cocoa Mass, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Powder, Milk Solids, Emulsifier (Soy Lecithin), Flavour Milk: Full Cream Milk, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Mass, Milk Solids, Emulsifiers (Soy Lecithin), Flavours

Answer 190

• Occur primarily in conjugated form with one or more sugars linked to hydroxyl group • Sugar unit can be mono-, di- or oligosaccharide • Glucose is the most common sugar unit • Galactose, rhamnose, xylose and arabinose are also found. • Synthesised through two main pathways: 1. shikimate & 2. acetate • Associations with other compounds are also common - carboxylic and organic acids, amines, lipids etc.

Answer 191

Flavonoids can be subdivided into 13 classes with > 5000 compounds represent most common and widely distributed polyphenols Consist of two aromatic rings linked through three carbons that usually form an oxygenated heterocycle

Answer 192

• Partially responsible for sensory and nutritional qualities • Contribute to astringency and bitterness • Oxidation of polyphenols during processing or storage results in desirable or undesirable changes

Answer 193

• Polyphenol content of cocoa beans (DM) is 12-18% • Three main groups of polyphenol (Flavanoids) – catechins (37%), anthocyanidins (4%), and proanthocyanidins (58%). • Catechins – epicatechin (35%), and catechin, gallocatechin and epigallocatchin are present in smaller quanities. • The major polyphenol in cocoa beans is the flavanol “epicatechin”.

Answer 194

• Epicatechin is well absorbed with a max. plasma concentration 2 hours after consumption with 20% approximately excreted in the urine.

Answer 195

* Scavenging Activity * Lipid Peroxidation * Resistance to Oxidative Stress

Answer 196

• Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid • Found in cocoa, and also in tea plant the kola nut. • Similar to caffeine, which has an extra methyl group. • Theobromine is vasodilator, a diuretic and heart stimulant. • There is some evidence that theobromine is helpful in treating asthma, since it relaxes smooth muscles found in the bronchi.

Answer 197

Made from 100% perfectly roasted cocoa beans

Answer 198

Fish oils/fatty acids (DHA/EPA) Proteins (collagen, gelatin, peptides, hydrosylates) Minerals (calcium) Vitamins (B, A and D)

Answer 199

Minerals (mainly iron and zinc of high bioavailability and manganese) High quality protein (containing amino acids essential to human health Fatty acids (Conjugated Linoleic Acid) Vitamins (mainly those of the B complex, being major sources of B12)

Answer 200

``` Natural blend of two important omega 3 fatty acids Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) ```

Answer 201

Water, Protein, Lipid, Ash Pork: 68-70, 19-20, 9-11, 1.4 Lamb: 73, 20, 5-6, 1.6 Salmon: 64, 20-22, 13-15,1.3 Tilapia: 77, 18, 4, 1

Answer 202

high energy makes it a debatable part of the diet, and is often blamed for excess energy which leads to obesity and high blood cholesterol levels -Unsaturated fatty acids, referred to as health-related fatty acids help in reducing blood cholesterol contents, are anti-carcinogenic, anit-diabetic and improve immunomodulation -In terms of health, the positives outweigh the negatives associated with fatty acid consumption.

Answer 203

Several families of unsaturated fats may be recognized by the number of saturated carbon atoms that follow the last double bond (the placement of the methyl end of the chain with respect to the double bond).

Answer 204

Health benefits: Increase risk of inflammation and oxidation stress Source: Vegetable oils

Answer 205

Benefits: Enhance platelet aggregation and CHD, pro-inflammatory Sources: Animal fats, liver, egg lipids, fish

Answer 206

Benefits: Reduce production of chemoattractants Acts as substrate for resolvins, protectins and maresins which modulate immune response Source: Fish, especially oily fish like mackerel, salmon, trout, herring, tuna, and sardines

Answer 207

Benefits: Protects against oxidative stress Sources: Flaxseed oil, perilla oil, canola oil, soybean oil

Answer 208

Benefits: Promote cardiovascular health, antiinflammatory response, promotes mental health and helps in neurodegenerative diseases, Inhibits tumor genesis Sources: Fish, especially oily fish like mackerel, salmon, trout, herring, tuna, and sardines

Answer 209

Benefits: Promote cardiovascular health, antiinflammatory response, promotes mental health and helps in neurodegenerative diseases Sources: Fish, especially oily fish mackerel, salmon, trout, herring, tuna, and sardines found in modest amounts in eggs and meat

Answer 210

those which can be synthesized in our body and hence, we can meet the requirement even if they are not supplemented through food

Answer 211

``` fatty acids which are not synthesized in our body • Mammal cannot synthesize • Limited ability to form long chain PUFAs (EPA, DHA, DPA) from ALA DPA - Docosapentaenoic acid EPA – Eicosapentaenoic acid DHA – Docosahexaenoic acid ALA – alpha-Linolenic acid ```

Answer 212

essential for normal growth and development may play an important role in the prevention and treatment of  coronary artery (heart) disease  hypertension  diabetes  arthritis and other inflammatory and autoimmune disorders  cancer

Answer 213

 RDI – recommended dietary intake  DI – daily intake  AI – adequate intake  SDT – suggested dietary target

Answer 214

* 2g DHA – maintenance of normal blood triglycerides * 250mg DHA – maintenance of normal brain function * 250mg DHA – maintenance of normal vision

Answer 215

 Fatty acid profiles of meat can be enhanced through the use of novel oil sources such as marine algae, chia seeds, lupin, hemp and camelina.  Feeding dairy cows with diets containing cis-MUFA varieties of rape or sunflower seed can increase these fatty acids in the milk  Hydrogenation of plant derived oils such as canola oil has resulted in a healthier fatty acid with reduced TFA composition  Microencapsulation of important plant oils containing high ALA alternatives of n-3 fatty acids has improved fatty acid profiles of the diets

Answer 216

Derived from pacific whiting or hake This is marketed as a pre-digested source of bioactive peptides and biogenic amines, along with essential minerals and omega-3 fatty acids – which the manufacturers say help support intestinal health and healing

Answer 217

Fish bone potential source of Ca when combined with calcium chelating peptides from fish may improve intestinal calcium absorption, further in-vivo studies are required.

Answer 218

Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin and is required by the body to maintain a normal skeleton function and structure. ``` Two physiologically important forms of vitamin D. Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) found mainly in plants Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) found mainly in animals ```

Answer 219

 Increased exposure to UVB radiation  Vitamin D supplementation  Fortification of food products  Sufficient dietary intake

Answer 220

 High quality protein known as complete protein providing all 9 essential amino acids (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine) required for health and wellbeing  Meat is a concentrated source of high-quality protein that is highly digestible compared with many plant foods.  Raw muscle meat contains 20-22g protein/100g, while cooked red meat contains around 26-35g protein/100g cooked product.  The digestibility is around 95%, and the protein contains the essential amino acids.

Answer 221

 Proteins are used by the body to build muscle mass, repair tissues, make enzymes and hormones  Build bones, cartilage, blood, antibodies, keratin and skin  Meat is a valuable source of high biological value protein

Answer 222

 Bioactive peptides are sequences of between 2–30 amino acids in length that impart a positive health effect when ingested.  They have been identified in a range of foods, including milk, beef, chicken, pork and seafood.  Health benefits – include antihypertensive, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antimicrobial  Methods to evaluate health related functions Antioxidant capacity assays, antimicrobial activity assays, anti-inflammatory assays,

Answer 223

 Carnosine and Anserine are known hydrophilic antioxidants present in meat  Carnosine antioxidant activity is due to its radical scavenging and metal chelating activities.  Consumption of beef steaks was shown to increase the total antioxidant capacity of human serum and the oral administration of L-carnosine has the same effect.

Answer 224

Iron deficiency can cause anaemia, which results in exhaustion and weakness. Iron has a much greater bioavailability in meat as heme iron that does plant derived nonheme iron. Zinc substantial quantities in meat and used for muscle synthesis and proper immune function. Selenium in meat serves as an antioxidant and aids in immune function, and helps with the use of iodine for thyroid hormone production.

Answer 225

Meat is also an important source of thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), biotin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, folate and pantothenic acid. Vitamin B12- is an essential nutrient (body’s production of healthy red blood cells and needed for proper nerve and brain function).

Answer 226

Conjugated linoleic acid is a fatty acid in meat that is derived mainly from bacterial isomerization/biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen. CLA is a group of isomers with double bonds in configurations trans (t) and cis (s).

Answer 227

``` • Microscopic photosynthetic organisms found in freshwater, brackish and marine systems. • Unicellular (prokaryotic) & eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cyanobacteria Eukaryotic microalgae ``` ``` • Potential novel source of bioactive molecules to enhance the nutritional and functional quality of foods • Photosynthetic mechanism is similar to that of land-based plants. • Spirulina - The World Health Organization (WHO) describes it as the greatest superfoods on earth.` ```

Answer 228

Spirulina: Represents a biomass of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be consumed by humans and other animals. ``` Astaxanthin: The freshwater green microalgal strain Haematococcus pluvialis is the richest source for the production of astaxanthin. ```

Answer 229

(1) Efficient CO2 conversion via photosynthesis; (2) High growth rate productivity (3–5 days), very short harvesting cycle (8–10 days) compared with other feedstocks (harvested once or twice a year); (3) Able to grow in non-agricultural land (e.g., seashore lands, desert or semiarid regions) using Salt water (saline or brackish waters) or Marginal waste water (agricultural/domestic/municipal/industrial wastewaters); (4) Excellent candidates for supply of both food and non-food products (biofuels). The microalgae are more efficient than land plants in converting solar energy into biomass, mainly because of their simple cellular structure and being submerged in an aqueous environment with access to water, CO2 , and other nutrients.

Answer 230

• Perfect candidates for “nutraceutical” or “functional food” due to Carotenoids, Long-chain fatty acids, Sugar, Essential amino acids, Enzymes, Vitamins & Minerals. • Commercialized as nutritional supplements for humans and as animal feed additives. Green algae (Chlorophyceae) Chlorella vulgaris, Haematococcus pluvialis, and Dunaliella salina Blue-green algae (Cyanobacterium) Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina)

Answer 231

Microscopic and filamentous cyanobacterium. Grows naturally in alkaline lakes Commercially produced in large outdoor or greenhouse ponds under controlled conditions. Active Components Phycocyanin; Sulphated polysaccharide fractions; GLA (Gamma-linolenic acid), an essential omega-6 fatty acid; certain sulfolipids; β-carotene; Lutein & Astaxanthin ``` Health Benefits  Immunomodulation,  Antioxidant,  Anticancer, antiviral & antibacterial activities  Possible effects against malnutrition  Hyperlipidemia and anaemias  Diabetes & Obesity,  Inflammatory allergic reactions,  Heavy metal/chemical-induced toxicity,  Radiation damage. ```

Answer 232

Green algae ``` Unicellular and uninucleate algae Devoid of a rigid polysaccharide wall. Could grow in salinities as different as 0.05 - 5.0 M NaCl Active Components Glutathione β-carotene ``` ``` Health Benefits Lowering heart attack, Antioxidant properties, Anti-cancer activity, Anti parkinoson’s disease, Detoxify the metals, Lowering the blood pressure ```

Answer 233

``` Green algae Unicellular green alga Freshwater species Active Components β-carotene, Astaxanthin Lutein Astaxanthin is a fat soluble compound, with increased absorption when consumed with dietary oils. Strong antioxidant ```

Answer 234

β-1,3-glucan Chlorella strains Natural soluble fiber active as immune stimulator, antioxidant and reducer of blood cholesterol Can be used in food industry, mainly as fat substitute for texturing food products such as functional bread, ready-to-serve soups, functional snacks, and a variety of other products Sulfated polysaccharides (red microalgae) P. cruentum. Cells of the red microalgae are encapsulated within sulphated polysaccharides, and during growth of the algae in a liquid medium, the viscosity of the medium increases due to dissolution of the polysaccharide from the cell surface into the medium (soluble polysaccharide) This dynamic rheological properties makes them suitable for nutrition, cosmetic and pharmaceutical purposes

Answer 235

 Algal oils are a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) with high market values Omega-3 (ω-3) Omega-6 (ω-6)  These PUFAs can be commercialized for nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications, and yield much higher prices than after converting the lipids to biofuels  For human health, ω-3 and ω-6 are entirely derived from the diet

Answer 236

1) Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3)  Obtained from Chlorella vulgaris  Nutritional supplement (single cell oil) 2) Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5) Nannochloropsis oculata Nutritional supplement, Psycotherapeutic medication, brain development for children, cardiovascular health 3) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6) Schizochytrium limacinum Important for brain and eye development at foetus and for children Significant for cardiovascular health, adult dietary supplement in food

Answer 237

1) ɣ-linolenic acid (GLA, C18:3) Obtained from Spirulina platensis GLA-rich supplements are promoted to help people suffering from diabetes, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, heart disease & multiple sclerosis. Anti aging skin cosmetic product based on GLA-lipids from S. platensis 2) Arachidonic acid (ARA, C20:4) Obtained from marine microalgae P. cruentum It is a vasodilator, shows anti-inflammatory affects and is used repair and growth of skeletal muscle tissue

Answer 238

Mechanical pressing Homogenization Milling Solvent extraction Common solvents used for extraction are Chloroform–methanol (1:1 (%v/v) allows the highest lipid extraction) Hexane, Hexane–isopropanol Other methods used for extraction of algae oil are  Microwaves,  Supercritical fluid extraction,  Enzymatic extractions,  Ultrasonic-assisted extraction,  Pulsed electric field technology

Answer 239

Can synthesize high protein content, up to 60–65% of dry matter The digestibility (nutritive value) of the alga-protein depends on the type of postharvesting process as the microalgae have relatively thick cell wall, which makes improperly treated algae indigestible for humans. Algal protein can be nutritionally accessible by disrupting (mechanical or nonmechanical) the cell wall. Mechanical forces Solid-shear forces (High speed homogenization, Bead mill) Liquid-shear forces (Microfluidization, High pressure homogenization), Energy transfer through Waves (Microwave, Ultrasonication), Currents (Pulsed electric field) or Heat (Autoclaving, Thermolysis) Non-mechanical methods Enzymatic cell lysis Chemical cell disruption S. platensis offers rich protein, about 60% by weight, which contains 10 of the 12 nonessential amino acids Used as a source of single cell protein (SCP) by astronauts during space travel. Spirulina foods provide superior nutrition Skin care properties

Answer 240

Chlorophylls (Greenish coloration) Carotenoids [Carotenes – Orange coloration & Xanthophylls – Yellow coloration] Phycobilins - Red & Blue coloration Source of nutrients - rich source of pro-vitamin A and vitamin E Pharmaceutical medical purposes (antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory effects, neuroprotective, cancer prevention) Cosmetic industry.

Answer 241

``` Novel extraction and separation techniques Supercritical CO2 extraction, Centrifugal partition chromatography, Pressurized liquid method For Example - Astaxanthin Acid digestion, HCL 2N, 70°C. Acetone extraction for 1 h Disadvantages Low productivities and High costs ```

Answer 242

``` Chlorophylls • Chlorophylls are greenish lipid-soluble pigments • Obtained from all algae • Pharmaceutical and cosmetics (deodorant) Carotenoids (Xanthophylls) • Astaxanthin (Haematococcus pluvialis) Reddish brown colour Food additive & antioxidant Carotenoids (Carotenes) • β-Carotene (Dunaliella salina) Yellow colour Pro-vitamin A, antioxidant, food additive ```

Answer 243

Blue-green colour Food colorant (beverages, ice cream, sweets), Cosmetics, in histochemistry, antibody

Answer 244

• Microalgae represent a valuable source of vitamin B12, a watersoluble vitamin. • Spirulina is far good source of vitamin B12, an excellent source of vitamin B complex for vegetarian consumers. • Other vitamins such as vitamin K, vitamin A, isomers of tocopherol (vitamin E) are also obtained from microalgae.

Answer 245

``` Polysaccharides Lipids Bioactive compounds Biopolyesters Proteins ```

Answer 246

 Spirulina may be used in foods because it is a source for proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, group B vitamins and several minerals.  Apart from Chlorophyll, Spirulina contains phycocyanin, which is a blue pigment with an interesting antioxidant power  The protein content of Spirulina (50–70% dry weight) contains all essential amino acids, particularly Leucine, Valine andIisoleucine, and exhibits high digestibility (83–90%)

Answer 247

First, there is a limited understanding of nutritional composition across algal species, geographical regions, and seasons, all of which can substantially affect their dietary value. Quantifying which fractions of algal foods are bioavailable to humans, and which factors influence how food constituents are released, ranging from food preparation through genetic differentiation in the gut microbiome. Understanding how algal nutritional and functional constituents interact in human metabolism.

Answer 248

``` Nearly 300 hundred species of micro algae are reported at times to form mass occurrence, known as Microalgal blooms. Nearly one fourth of these species produce toxins (Harmful Algal Bloom) Proliferations of microalgae in marine or brackish waters can cause massive fish kills, contaminate seafood with toxins, and alter ecosystems ```

Answer 249

 Microalgae are considered as unconventional food and have to undergo a series of toxicological tests to prove their harmlessness.  Regulations exist from country to country, which specify the recommended analyses. The toxicological characterization, the algal material has to be mainly analysed in terms of two aspects 1) Biogenic Toxins: Compounds synthesized by the alga itself Ex: Nucleic acids and Algal toxins 2) Non-biogenic toxins: Compounds that are accumulated from the environment Ex: Environmental contaminants such as Heavy Metals