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Food Production And Security Flashcards

1
Q

Reasons for high food prices

A

Fundamentals of supply and demand- poor harvests
Government policy responses- reduce excessive stocks eg EU grain mountains
Market/investment developments- global market

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2
Q

Key plant families of agricultural importance

A

Poaceae
Solanaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Convolvulaceae
Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Brassicaceae
Amaranthaceae (Chenopodiaceae)

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3
Q

Poaceae

A

Truly global in range
Estimated 25% of earth covered by grasses
Characterised by leaf sheaths and blades
Inflorescence- leafless branch system at the top of the plant with spikelets
Eg maize

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4
Q

Maize- Zea mays

A

C4 plant - bypasses wasteful photorespiration of RuBisCo- advantage in drought and high temperature

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5
Q

Domestication of maize

A

Mexican grass teosinte is the ancestor of maize
Maize kernels are uncovered on the ear surface, whilst those of teosinte are tightly encased in cupulate fruit cases
The fruit cases of teosinte

Involved a change in ear development

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6
Q

Brassicaceae

A

Oils (second to soybean oil providing 13% of world’s supply) and mustards
Forage and fodder, Salads and vegetables

Brassica oleracea – wild cabbage
Originally temperate – native to the south England and Mediterranean
Diverse range of forms grown all over the world
Kales, cabbages, brussel sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower
Oilseeds: Brassica

Glucosinolates responsible for the characteristic taste

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7
Q

Fabaceae

A

Legumes- seed and forage species, many are nitrogen fixers
Peas, beans, soybean (Glycine max)
Many tropical in origin
Seeds in pods for livestock and humans
Nitrogen fixing cover crops

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8
Q

Amaranthaceae (Chenopodiaceae)

A

Beta vulgaris
Sugar beet (7.5 mt UK), Spinach

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9
Q

Convolvulaceae family(Ipomoea batatas, Sweet potato)

A

~91 million tonnes produced annually worldwide (FAO, 2018)
Extensively produced in the tropics
Root used for human and animal consumption
Industrial alcohol and sugar production
Origins in Central America / South America

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10
Q

Cassava

A

Roots used for both human and animal food
Originated in South America; spread to parts of Africa and Asia
~ 278 million tonnes produced annually (FAO, 2018)
Staple food for more than 500 million people in the tropics (Best and Henry,1992)
High cyanide content in bitter varieties
Starch in roots can be converted to alcohol as a source of bio-fuel
Leaves and stems have potential for the generation of electricity

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11
Q

Irish potato famine

A

Fungal pathogen Phytophthora infestans causes Potato Blight
Devastated Irish potato crop in 1840s
~1 million people died and 2 million emigrated
Controlling potato blight:

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12
Q

How do we address food production challenges

A

Increase yield
Sustainable increase through genetic improvements and crop management (agronomy)
Technology
Alternatives

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13
Q

Factors affecting food supply

A

Climate
Conflict
Disease

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14
Q

Factors responsible for increase in wheat yield

A

Crop management
Nitrogen fertiliser, agrochemicals and plant growth regulators
Plant breeding- new crop varieties- genetic yield gain

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15
Q

Uses of maize

A

Human consumption- starch, cooking oil and biofuel
In the UK- mainly forage maize

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16
Q

2 species of cultivated rice

A

Oryza sativa (Asian Rice)
Thought to be domesticated around 8500 years ago in China
Asian rice Classically split into 2 subspecies; indica and japonica

Oryza glaberimma (African Rice)
Thought to be domesticated 2- 3,000 years ago - floodplains
of the River Niger

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17
Q

Cultivated rice (Oryza spp.)

A

~782 million tonnes of rice is produced annually.
Staple crop for over half the world’s population.
Irrigated - 75% of world rice production grown in bunded fields to retain water 80 million ha.

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18
Q

Alternative end products of rice

A

bran in cereals and biscuits, etc.; bran oil for cooking; flour for rice crisps and pasta; starch in sauces and syrup; as well as brewing for beer and sake.

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19
Q

Rice production

A

Irrigated - 75% of world rice production grown in bunded fields to retain water
Rainfed lowland - 20% of world rice production grown in bunded fields fed by seasonal rainfall
Rainfed upland - 4% of world rice production grown in mixed farmland without irrigation and lower yielding

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20
Q

Rice and food security

A

Rice is the staple food for more than half the world’s population
Many of these are in developing countries
100 million people were pushed into poverty in 2008 when rice prices tripled
Major rice producing nations curbed exports
Rice importing nations (e.g. Bangladesh) paid more

Constraints on stable rice prices
-Increase yields, efficiency and resistance to a changing climate
-Using less land, water and labour

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21
Q

Types of wheat

A

Wheat domesticated ~8,000 years ago.
Most widespread cereal in area planted
Production is estimated to be 734 million tonnes (FAO, 2018)
Uses include: flour for bread making, alcoholic beverages, livestock feed.
Two main types:
Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat)
Triticum durum (Durum wheat)

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22
Q

Evolution of domestic wheat

A

T. aestivum is an allohexaploid arising from:
hybridisation of the diploid Aegilops tauschii and the tetraploid Triticum dicoccoides (Wild Emmer)

Wild Emmer is a hybrid of two diploid species:
Aegilops speltoides and T. urartu

with six sets of chromosomes, two sets from each of three different species

217 million Ha

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23
Q

Strategies to increase wheat yield

A

Increase photosynthetic capacity
Maximise utilisation of photosynthetic capacity
Genetics to accumulate yield traits
Prevent avoidable yield losses

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24
Q

Solanaceae

A

Herbs, shrubs and trees: including potato, tomato (lycopersicon ), chillipeppers (capsicum) and eggplant (aubergine) and many poisonous species alkoloids, Tobacco (nicotiana tabacum) nicotine, deadly nightshade
63 genera 12000 species
Tropical and sub-tropical mainly

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25
Potato
Origins South/Central America Domesticated in the Andes ~ 7000 years ago Brought over to Europe in the 16th century by the Spanish Fourth most popular crop worldwide, behind wheat, maize and rice (368 million tonnes in 2018, FAO) Breeding for improvement in Europe
26
Improving yield
Enhancing photosynthesis New crop species Nitrogen fixation, improving soil health, cover crops Perennial crops Hybrid vigour Enhanced application of new and existing cropping systems
27
Non-food uses of plants
Flavours, fragrances- essential oils Dyes Bioethanol and biodiesel Biomass and biogas Bioplastics Fibres Crop protection Pharmaceutical
28
Why have non-food crops become more popular
Changes in Agricultural policy. New opportunities created by biotechnology - biomass, straw and wood burners Movements towards sustainable economic systems based on renewable energy. Environmental issues surrounding conventional crops.- pesticides, loss of habitat, greenhouse gas emissions - high inputs Employment. E.g. straw burning power stations / coppice Security of supply. Reduce dependence on fossil fuels; biofuels, bioplastics
29
Flavours and fragrances
Fragrance compounds Aroma chemicals, essential oils for perfumery Flavour compounds Spices Asteraceae family Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis; Matricaria recutita) Calendula officinalis, Artemisia annua Lamiaceae family Lavender (Lavandula sp.) Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) Peppermint (Mentha piperita) Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
30
Natural dyes
Most of the colours used in commercial textile dyeing are synthetic. By-products of fossil fuels. Plant alternatives: Woad (Isatis tinctoria) Madder (Rubia tinctorum) Weld (Reseda luteola)
31
Bioethanol
Liquid transport fuel in Brazil and USA and increasingly Europe Crops: Wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet, maize. Cereals are ideal because of their useful by-products: Starch, gluten, animal feed, glucose syrups. Conversion to bio-ethanol Fermentation and distillation
32
Biodiesel
Sunflowers (30-40% oil) and Oilseed rape (45% oil) Products: oil and protein meal. How is the raw product processed? Mechanical pressing and solvent extraction Oil is filtered then converted to an ester by reacting it with methanol in the presence of sodium hydroxide; this produces an ester and glycerine. Novel alternatives: Tropical shrub Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae) –seeds yield 40-60% oil by weight, toxic.
33
Cotton
Gossypium hirsutum Source: seed fibres Generally soft with a high cellulose content Elongation of single epidermal hair cells of the seed of various species Use: woven into fabric
34
Kapok
Bombax ceiba endocarp fibre Unsuitable for weaving (too brittle) but it has a low density which makes it suitable for: Stuffing
35
Coir
(Cocos nucifera) coconut palm, mesocarp fibre Ropes and mats, Peat substitute Stuffing
36
Fibres from eudicotyledonous stems
These bast fibres are generally bundles of individual sclerenchyma cells. Jute Obtained from (Corchorus capsularis) Sacking and carpet backing and rough papers. Flax (Linum usitatissimum) Linen and high grade writing and tissue papers. Hemp (Canabis sativa) Coarser than flax and has a higher lignin content Twines and coarse fabrics. Tree species Softwoods (conifers for pulp - paper) Tilia cordata (small leaved lime) specialist ropes
37
Monocot plant fibres
Sisal (Agave sisalana) - leaf fibres used for twines, cord and ropes and fabrics for sacks. Fibre strands can be >1 m in length Several species of monocots provide fibre which can be used in the production of paper. Fibre residue from sugar cane (Saccharum sp.) Rice (Oryza sativa) and bamboo stems Manila hemp (Musa textilis)
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Where can fibres be found in plants
Fruits Stems/trees Leaves
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Plant fibres- uses
Textiles and pulp for paper manufacture Cordage Fibre board (MDF) Filtration products
40
Negatives of plant fibres
Many of these do not use the whole fibre and many require pre-treatment: in pulp and paper production the lignin needs to be removed without damaging the cellulose fibres. Does not degrade easily so not particularly recyclable Many textile fibres require extensive processing (except cotton)
41
How to harvest fibres
Allow microbes to - dew retting and stand retting
42
Main groups of toxic compounds
Alkaloids Glycosides Saponins Oxalates Proteins, peptides and amino acids Tannins
43
Alkaloids
Common – found in 40 % of plant families. Complex molecular structure with a nitrogen atom being part of a heterocyclic ring. Generally end in – ine; e.g. piperidine, solanine, coniine etc
44
Glycoalkaloid solanine (potato (Solanum tuberosum), black nightshade Solanum nigrum); conine, atropine, strychnine, taxine.
Symptoms Excess or absence of salivation, pupil effects, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, convulsions, coma.
45
Taxine symptoms
After 1 hr nausea, abdominal pain and unconsciousness. Eventually low blood pressure, respiratory paralysis and heart failure.
46
Glycosides
Cyanogenic, cardiac and saponic glycosides and others. Ranunculin (Buttercup), cherry laurel, cassava, foxglove (cardiac). When ingested the cyanogenic glycosides are broken down into sugar, prussic acid (HCN), and an aldehyde or ketone.
47
Glycosides symptoms
Rapidly absorbed - min lethal dose HCN (2-4 mg/kg) Death can occur within a few min-hours, initial stimulation of respiration to laboured breathing, excitement, gasping, convulsion, coma, death.
48
Saponins (saponic glycosides )
Water soluble and form a soapy foam. Found in Arum, beech, horse chestnut and some clovers.
49
Saponins symptoms
Ingesting large quantities can cause sore throat, vomiting, severe diarrhoea, irregular heartbeat, coma and death.
50
Oxalates
Greater quantities in mature plants and concentrated in the leaves. Significant if contains 10 % or more oxalic acid (DW). Mainly a problem in livestock but human poisoning has occurred by ingestion of rhubarb leaves (Rheum rhabarbarum) or the house plant Dieffenbachia sp. (Dumb Cane; this contains calcium oxalate).
51
Oxalic acid poisoning symptoms
Hypocalcaemia – calcium removed from the bloodstream. Rapid breathing, depression, weakness, staggering gait, coma and death.
52
Calcium oxalate Dieffenbachia sp.
Symptoms (Calcium oxalate) Salivation – loss of speech Irritation to skin, eyes contact with sap. Extensive exposure rare due to swelling of mouth and throat.
53
Photosensitive agents
Compounds absorbed into the blood reach skin and become excited by UV rays Symptoms Itchiness, redness, swelling and blistering of the skin.
54
Proteins, peptides and amino acids
Again often contain nitrogen like Alkaloids and Glycosides Mainly found in poisonous fungi (Aminita phalloides)- amatoxins But also in plants – freshwater blue green algal blooms (Microcystis sp.), kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and castor oil beans (Ricinus communis) Castor oil plants are native to Africa and Asia
55
Ricin
Highly toxic naturally occurring compound Ricin found in high concentrations in the seed (1-5% weight of seed) Symptoms Rapid - occur within a few hours. Abdominal pain, vomiting, and gastrointestinal haemorrhage, organ necrosis and death.
56
Fungal toxins- ergot
Fungal pathogen (Claviceps purpurea) of grasses including wheat, barley and rye. The ‘ergot’ sclerotia – resting stage of the fungus, replaces the grain Contains over 40 alkaloids
57
Ergot symptoms
Known as a poison and hallucinogen for many centuries. Burning sensation of the mouth, mental confusion, severe convulsions, gangrene.
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Field mushrooms
Symptoms: dizziness, weakness, severe headache, stomach ache and vomiting for 4 hours
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Plants and medicine
Inexpensive production of secondary metabolites Diversity of substances – new products Diversity of compounds, novel modes of action, future potential and commercial production potential via crops and genetic modification
60
Who is most likely to suffer from plant and fungi poisoning
Children Adults who go foraging Livestock Individuals experimenting with herbal medicines and teas or the psychoactive effects

Plant Structure And Function (12 decks)

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