Food and Health 2- Food systems and the spread of disease Flashcards
What are the different types of farming?
-Arable
-Pastoral
-Commercial
-Subsistence
-Intensive
-Extensive
-Nomadic
-Sedentary
Arable farming
The cultivation of crops such as wheat farming in the Great Plains of the USA.
Pastoral farming
Rearing animals, for example sheep farming in New Zealand.
Commercial farming
Products sold to make a profit such as market gardening in the Netherlands.
Subsistence farming
Products consumed by the cultivators, as in the case of shifting cultivation by Kayapo in the Amazon rainforest.
Intensive farming
High inputs or yields per unit area, such as battery hen production.
Extensive farming
Low inputs or yields per unit area, as in free-range chicken production.
Nomadic farming
Farmers moving seasonally with their herds, such as the Pokot, pastoralists in Kenya.
Sedentary farming
Farmers remain in the same place throughout the year, such as the diary farmers in Devon and Cornwall in the UK.
In order to simplify farming types, ___
A systems apporach is used, showing iputs, processes, and outputs. This allows us to compare different aspects of the darming types.
Physical factors affecting farming activities
Human factors affecting farming activities
Another way to analyze agricultural systems is to consider them as ___
-Modified ecosystems
-Agricultural ecosystems can be compared with natural ecosystems in terms of productivity, biomass, nutrient cycling, and energy efficiency.
A systems approach to two farming types
Comparison of natural and agricultural ecosystems
What is industrial farming?
Large scale commercial farms, making use of economies of scale and specialisation
What is organic farming?
Farming system free of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
Compare traditional commercial farming with organic farming
-A conventional farm increases environmental risk and habitat loss in comparison to organic production.
-The environmental benefits of a conservation approach to farming as opposed to conventional farming.
-A conservation approach protects soil structure and fertility.
-Crop residue rather than being removed and lost can be re-used to add structure and fertility to soil as well as protect it against run-off and disease.
Benefits of intensive farming systems
-For example, battery farmed pigs have a shorter lifespan compared to more organic farmed pigs.
-By controlling their movement and space, land cover is reduced and a shorter lifespan means less waste and methane production.
What does the energy efficiency of a system depend on?
-The quantity of food produced.
-If only a small amount of food is produced, the energy efficiency is likely to be poor.
-Likewise, a large intensive farm in Canada with a huge variety of direct and indirect energy inputs might achieve an efficient energy ratio provided it produces an abundance of food.
Energy efficiency ultimately depends on ___
-The output in comparison to yield.
-If a farming system produces large yields, its energy efficiency will improve.
0For this reason intensive farming systems such as battery chicken farms and grain-fed beef production despite large energy inputs are in fact energy efficient.
What do regenerative farming systems attempt to do?
-To combine farming methods in circular ecosystems.
-They practice no tilling, and practice mixed farming and crop rotation.
What does industrial agriculture focus on?
Keeping crop and livestock separate to increase efficiency and yields.
Comparison of the approach of industrial and regenerative farming.
-Industrial: In today’s conventional farming approach, crops and livestock production are kept separate. This is because mono-cultural production systems aim to maximize yields with specialization.
-Regenerative: Combines farming methods in circular systems. Practices no-till, cover crops, increasing biodiversity, rotating crops and integrating livestock in a single ecosystem.
Comparison between the environmental impact of industrial and regenerative farming
-Industrial: Conventional farming has a large carbon footprint. 23% of total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are directly related to agriculture, forestry, and other types of land use.
-Regenerative: Seeks to improve soil health, water infiltration, and reduce erosion. Benefits include reduced water pollution, improved soil carbon absorption, and the return of wildlife that has been lost due to chemical inputs. However, no-tilling practices may lead to more weeds and some will end up resorting to herbicides.
Comparison between the yield of industrial and regenerative farming
-Industrial: In the 20th century, global crop yields increased on an unprecedented scale as a result of fossil-fuel-based inputs. However, these methods are not sustainable and crop yields have plateaued since the 1990s.
-Regenerative: While regenerative methods can lower yields, this varies greatly depending on the crop and local conditions. In some cases, regenerative methods can lead to similar or even higher yields than in industrial farming.
Comparison between the costs and profitability of industrial and regenerative agriculture
-Industrial: Conventional farming methods often result in higher yields than regenerative agriculture, but profit margins vary. Specialization allows for technical efficiency but profits are affected by higher input costs including more pesticides, fertilizers, and fuel.
-Regenerative: Regenerative crops have lower input costs and often attract a higher price than conventional produce. Renerative farmers may need to invest in acquiring knowledge and skills, particularly in respect of soil management and creating circular ecosystems.
What is the energy efficiency ration (EER)?
A measure of the amount of energy inputs into a system compared with the outputs
Inputs and ouputs of different farming systems
-In a traditional agroforestry system, the inputs are very low.
-However, the outputs from hunting and gathering may be quite high.
-In contrast, the inputs into intensive pastoral farming or greenhouse cultivation may be very great but the returns may be quite low.
What energy efficiency ratio is considered an efficient ratio?
A ratio equal to or above 1
How is the energy efficiency calculated?
Energy outputs/energy inputs
Nutrient cycling is often shown by the use of ___
Gersmehl diagrams
Ecosystems have energy flows, in which ___
Sunlight energy is converted to food energy and passed along the food chain
What are water footprints?
A measure of how much water is used in human activities, such as for producing food.
Infographic showing the water footprint of different agricultural products
What is the difference between FED and FAD?
FED (Food entitlement deficiency)- the food is there but for various reasons, they are not entitled to access it, thus leading to hunger
FAD (Food availability deficiency)- there are problems in access and availability to food, thus leading to hunger
Factors affecting food consumption in Bahrain
-Despite the problems of climate, soil, and land availability, Bahrain was self-sufficient in fruit and
vegetable production before the development of the oil industry in the 1930s.
-Many laborers left employment in agriculture, fishing, and pearl diving.
-This led to a decline in agricultural and fisheries production and an increased dependence on imported foods.
-With increased levels of wealth, and more electrical appliances such as fridges and freezers, more households get an increasing proportion of their energy needs from protein and fat and less from carbohydrates.
-In addition, more of their protein comes from animal sources.
-The increase in working women led to increased demand for convenience foods.
-Television advertising of food products was found to have an important role in shaping the food consumption of poorer Bahraini households.
How do income and education influence food choices?
-Through the resources available to purchase a higher quality of food
-Diet may vary depending on the availability of income to purchase more healthy, nutrient-rich food
-For a low-income family, price plays a larger role than taste and quality in whether a certain food will be purchased.
-The variety of foods carried in neighborhoods may also influence diet, and oms people may live in a ‘food desert’
How have urban areas in Cape Town, South Africa, since the end of apartheid in 1994?
There has been an increase in the number of black Africans living in urban areas, such as Khayelitsha, Cape Town
What is urbanization often accompanied by (Cape Town, SA)?
-Changes in diet
-Consumption of traditional food is largely associated with poverty and, consequently, as people move into the city, they factor a typical westernized diet with high fat and low carbohydrate content.
-This has led to an increase in the levels of obesity and type 2 diabetes.
What is urbanization often accompanied by (Cape Town, SA)?
-Changes in diet
-Consumption of traditional food is largely associated with poverty and, consequently, as people move into the city, they factor a typical westernized diet with high fat and low carbohydrate content.
-This has led to an increase in the levels of obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Researchers from the University of the Western Cape found that perceptions about food varied according to ___
Age and gender
How do perceptions about food vary with age and gender in Cape Town, South Africa?
-Women’s perceptions about food are centered around satisfying the family’s needs. Women see themselves as food providers, so, even when food is scarce, they feel responsible for making sure that all family members have something to eat.
-In contrast, older men see themselves as the person responsible for supporting the family.
-Some of the younger women seem to be concious about body weight and therefore are more selective about food, whereas many of the younger men felt that they could eat without restriction.
How has migration to urban areas led to changes in food consumption in Cape Town, SA?
-For some, migration to urban areas may led to debt and an inability to afford quality food.
-They may resort to cheap unhealthy food, such as tripe, chicken skin, and pig’s feet, which are readily accessible in Khayelitsha.
Cultural factors affecting food consumption in Cape Town, South Africa
-Food is seen as a sign of warmth, acceptance, and friendship
-The consumption of some foods is associated with certain socio-economic statuses
-Food is used for celebrations, rituals, and for welcoming guests
Cultural factors impacting food consumption in Cape Town: food is seen as a sign of warmth, acceptance, and friendship.
People who were previously deprived of opportunities to eat a variety of foods, whether due to political, geographic or socio-economic factors, consider it necessary to enjoy as much as they can eat when they do have the opportunity, to show their improved socioeconomic standing.
Cultural factors impacting food consumption in Cape Town: the consumption of certain foods is associated with certain socioeconomic statuses
-The daily consumption of meat is associated with
high socio-economic status, while consumption of vegetables only is associated with low socioeconomic
status.
-Eating large portions of food is associated with affordability.
Cultural factors impacting food consumption in Cape Town: food is used for celebrations, rituals, and for welcoming guests
-Food is also used during social occasions when people get together and meet socially.
-Sweets, ice cream, and cakes are consumed on happy occasions.
-Fatty meat is a sign of generosity; lean meat and black tea are often eaten during mourning periods.
Which factors have influenced food consumption in the Middle East?
-Food consumption patterns dramatically changed in
some Arab countries as a result of the increase
in income from oil revenues.
-Food subsidies adversely affected eating habits in the Gulf States by encouraging the intake of fat, sugar, rice, wheat flour, and meat.
-Sociocultural factors such as religion, beliefs, food preferences, gender discrimination, education, and women’s employment have also had a noticeable influence on food consumption patterns in this region.
-Mass media, especially televised food advertisements play an important role in modifying dietary habits.
-Migration movements, particularly those during the 1970s, have also had a big impact on the food practices in many Arab countries.
Food insecurity in Bangladesh
-Bangladesh faces a number of environmental pressures, including cyclones, increasing salinity, and floods.
-This disrupts subsistence farming systems that can directly lead to food insecurity.
-Other factors relate to income and the ability to afford food and invest in farm inputs.
-External factors also play role.
-These include the high prices of food and competition with larger commercial farms.
Changing patterns of childhood obesity in the US and the UK
-Some childhood obesity rates have slowed in countries like the US and the UK, but not among poorer families where levels are still very high.
-This means that many thousands of overweight children will have health problems as adults.
Childhood obesity in England
A third of 10–11 year olds is overweight or obese
Childhood obesity in the US
Children are on average 5 kg heavier than children 30 years ago
Diagram showing the transmission of Vibrio cholerae
