Food and Health 2- Food systems and the spread of disease Flashcards
1
Q
What are the different types of farming?
A
-Arable
-Pastoral
-Commercial
-Subsistence
-Intensive
-Extensive
-Nomadic
-Sedentary
2
Q
Arable farming
A
The cultivation of crops such as wheat farming in the Great Plains of the USA.
3
Q
Pastoral farming
A
Rearing animals, for example sheep farming in New Zealand.
4
Q
Commercial farming
A
Products sold to make a profit such as market gardening in the Netherlands.
5
Q
Subsistence farming
A
Products consumed by the cultivators, as in the case of shifting cultivation by Kayapo in the Amazon rainforest.
6
Q
Intensive farming
A
High inputs or yields per unit area, such as battery hen production.
7
Q
Extensive farming
A
Low inputs or yields per unit area, as in free-range chicken production.
8
Q
Nomadic farming
A
Farmers moving seasonally with their herds, such as the Pokot, pastoralists in Kenya.
9
Q
Sedentary farming
A
Farmers remain in the same place throughout the year, such as the diary farmers in Devon and Cornwall in the UK.
10
Q
In order to simplify farming types, ___
A
A systems apporach is used, showing iputs, processes, and outputs. This allows us to compare different aspects of the darming types.
11
Q
Physical factors affecting farming activities
A
12
Q
Human factors affecting farming activities
A
13
Q
Another way to analyze agricultural systems is to consider them as ___
A
-Modified ecosystems
-Agricultural ecosystems can be compared with natural ecosystems in terms of productivity, biomass, nutrient cycling, and energy efficiency.
14
Q
A systems approach to two farming types
A
15
Q
Comparison of natural and agricultural ecosystems
A
16
Q
What is industrial farming?
A
Large scale commercial farms, making use of economies of scale and specialisation
17
Q
What is organic farming?
A
Farming system free of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
18
Q
Compare traditional commercial farming with organic farming
A
-A conventional farm increases environmental risk and habitat loss in comparison to organic production.
-The environmental benefits of a conservation approach to farming as opposed to conventional farming.
-A conservation approach protects soil structure and fertility.
-Crop residue rather than being removed and lost can be re-used to add structure and fertility to soil as well as protect it against run-off and disease.
19
Q
Benefits of intensive farming systems
A
-For example, battery farmed pigs have a shorter lifespan compared to more organic farmed pigs.
-By controlling their movement and space, land cover is reduced and a shorter lifespan means less waste and methane production.
20
Q
What does the energy efficiency of a system depend on?
A
-The quantity of food produced.
-If only a small amount of food is produced, the energy efficiency is likely to be poor.
-Likewise, a large intensive farm in Canada with a huge variety of direct and indirect energy inputs might achieve an efficient energy ratio provided it produces an abundance of food.
21
Q
Energy efficiency ultimately depends on ___
A
-The output in comparison to yield.
-If a farming system produces large yields, its energy efficiency will improve.
0For this reason intensive farming systems such as battery chicken farms and grain-fed beef production despite large energy inputs are in fact energy efficient.
22
Q
What do regenerative farming systems attempt to do?
A
-To combine farming methods in circular ecosystems.
-They practice no tilling, and practice mixed farming and crop rotation.
23
Q
What does industrial agriculture focus on?
A
Keeping crop and livestock separate to increase efficiency and yields.
24
Q
Comparison of the approach of industrial and regenerative farming.
A
-Industrial: In today’s conventional farming approach, crops and livestock production are kept separate. This is because mono-cultural production systems aim to maximize yields with specialization.
-Regenerative: Combines farming methods in circular systems. Practices no-till, cover crops, increasing biodiversity, rotating crops and integrating livestock in a single ecosystem.
25
Comparison between the environmental impact of industrial and regenerative farming
-Industrial: Conventional farming has a large carbon footprint. 23% of total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are directly related to agriculture, forestry, and other types of land use.
-Regenerative: Seeks to improve soil health, water infiltration, and reduce erosion. Benefits include reduced water pollution, improved soil carbon absorption, and the return of wildlife that has been lost due to chemical inputs. However, no-tilling practices may lead to more weeds and some will end up resorting to herbicides.
26
Comparison between the yield of industrial and regenerative farming
-Industrial: In the 20th century, global crop yields increased on an unprecedented scale as a result of fossil-fuel-based inputs. However, these methods are not sustainable and crop yields have plateaued since the 1990s.
-Regenerative: While regenerative methods can lower yields, this varies greatly depending on the crop and local conditions. In some cases, regenerative methods can lead to similar or even higher yields than in industrial farming.
27
Comparison between the costs and profitability of industrial and regenerative agriculture
-Industrial: Conventional farming methods often result in higher yields than regenerative agriculture, but profit margins vary. Specialization allows for technical efficiency but profits are affected by higher input costs including more pesticides, fertilizers, and fuel.
-Regenerative: Regenerative crops have lower input costs and often attract a higher price than conventional produce. Renerative farmers may need to invest in acquiring knowledge and skills, particularly in respect of soil management and creating circular ecosystems.
28
What is the energy efficiency ration (EER)?
A measure of the amount of energy inputs into a system compared with the outputs
29
Inputs and ouputs of different farming systems
-In a traditional agroforestry system, the inputs are very low.
-However, the outputs from hunting and gathering may be quite high.
-In contrast, the inputs into intensive pastoral farming or greenhouse cultivation may be very great but the returns may be quite low.
30
What energy efficiency ratio is considered an efficient ratio?
A ratio equal to or above 1
31
How is the energy efficiency calculated?
Energy outputs/energy inputs
32
Nutrient cycling is often shown by the use of ___
Gersmehl diagrams
33
Ecosystems have energy flows, in which ___
Sunlight energy is converted to food energy and passed along the food chain
34
What are water footprints?
A measure of how much water is used in human activities, such as for producing food.
35
Infographic showing the water footprint of different agricultural products
36
What is the difference between FED and FAD?
FED (Food entitlement deficiency)- the food is there but for various reasons, they are not entitled to access it, thus leading to hunger
FAD (Food availability deficiency)- there are problems in access and availability to food, thus leading to hunger
37
Factors affecting food consumption in Bahrain
-Despite the problems of climate, soil, and land availability, Bahrain was self-sufficient in fruit and
vegetable production before the development of the oil industry in the 1930s.
-Many laborers left employment in agriculture, fishing, and pearl diving.
-This led to a decline in agricultural and fisheries production and an increased dependence on imported foods.
-With increased levels of wealth, and more electrical appliances such as fridges and freezers, more households get an increasing proportion of their energy needs from protein and fat and less from carbohydrates.
-In addition, more of their protein comes from animal sources.
-The increase in working women led to increased demand for convenience foods.
-Television advertising of food products was found to have an important role in shaping the food consumption of poorer Bahraini households.
38
How do income and education influence food choices?
-Through the resources available to purchase a higher quality of food
-Diet may vary depending on the availability of income to purchase more healthy, nutrient-rich food
-For a low-income family, price plays a larger role than taste and quality in whether a certain food will be purchased.
-The variety of foods carried in neighborhoods may also influence diet, and oms people may live in a 'food desert'
39
How have urban areas in Cape Town, South Africa, since the end of apartheid in 1994?
There has been an increase in the number of black Africans living in urban areas, such as Khayelitsha, Cape Town
40
What is urbanization often accompanied by (Cape Town, SA)?
-Changes in diet
-Consumption of traditional food is largely associated with poverty and, consequently, as people move into the city, they factor a typical westernized diet with high fat and low carbohydrate content.
-This has led to an increase in the levels of obesity and type 2 diabetes.
41
What is urbanization often accompanied by (Cape Town, SA)?
-Changes in diet
-Consumption of traditional food is largely associated with poverty and, consequently, as people move into the city, they factor a typical westernized diet with high fat and low carbohydrate content.
-This has led to an increase in the levels of obesity and type 2 diabetes.
42
Researchers from the University of the Western Cape found that perceptions about food varied according to ___
Age and gender
43
How do perceptions about food vary with age and gender in Cape Town, South Africa?
-Women's perceptions about food are centered around satisfying the family's needs. Women see themselves as food providers, so, even when food is scarce, they feel responsible for making sure that all family members have something to eat.
-In contrast, older men see themselves as the person responsible for supporting the family.
-Some of the younger women seem to be concious about body weight and therefore are more selective about food, whereas many of the younger men felt that they could eat without restriction.
44
How has migration to urban areas led to changes in food consumption in Cape Town, SA?
-For some, migration to urban areas may led to debt and an inability to afford quality food.
-They may resort to cheap unhealthy food, such as tripe, chicken skin, and pig's feet, which are readily accessible in Khayelitsha.
45
Cultural factors affecting food consumption in Cape Town, South Africa
-Food is seen as a sign of warmth, acceptance, and friendship
-The consumption of some foods is associated with certain socio-economic statuses
-Food is used for celebrations, rituals, and for welcoming guests
46
Cultural factors impacting food consumption in Cape Town: food is seen as a sign of warmth, acceptance, and friendship.
People who were previously deprived of opportunities to eat a variety of foods, whether due to political, geographic or socio-economic factors, consider it necessary to enjoy as much as they can eat when they do have the opportunity, to show their improved socioeconomic standing.
47
Cultural factors impacting food consumption in Cape Town: the consumption of certain foods is associated with certain socioeconomic statuses
-The daily consumption of meat is associated with
high socio-economic status, while consumption of vegetables only is associated with low socioeconomic
status.
-Eating large portions of food is associated with affordability.
48
Cultural factors impacting food consumption in Cape Town: food is used for celebrations, rituals, and for welcoming guests
-Food is also used during social occasions when people get together and meet socially.
-Sweets, ice cream, and cakes are consumed on happy occasions.
-Fatty meat is a sign of generosity; lean meat and black tea are often eaten during mourning periods.
49
Which factors have influenced food consumption in the Middle East?
-Food consumption patterns dramatically changed in
some Arab countries as a result of the increase
in income from oil revenues.
-Food subsidies adversely affected eating habits in the Gulf States by encouraging the intake of fat, sugar, rice, wheat flour, and meat.
-Sociocultural factors such as religion, beliefs, food preferences, gender discrimination, education, and women’s employment have also had a noticeable influence on food consumption patterns in this region.
-Mass media, especially televised food advertisements play an important role in modifying dietary habits.
-Migration movements, particularly those during the 1970s, have also had a big impact on the food practices in many Arab countries.
50
Food insecurity in Bangladesh
-Bangladesh faces a number of environmental pressures, including cyclones, increasing salinity, and floods.
-This disrupts subsistence farming systems that can directly lead to food insecurity.
-Other factors relate to income and the ability to afford food and invest in farm inputs.
-External factors also play role.
-These include the high prices of food and competition with larger commercial farms.
51
Changing patterns of childhood obesity in the US and the UK
-Some childhood obesity rates have slowed in countries like the US and the UK, but not among poorer families where levels are still very high.
-This means that many thousands of overweight children will have health problems as adults.
52
Childhood obesity in England
A third of 10–11 year olds is overweight or obese
53
Childhood obesity in the US
Children are on average 5 kg heavier than children 30 years ago
54
How does gender impact food insecurity?
-Women find it more difficult to access resources and credit in many societies.
-With limited access to knowledge, they face many barriers that prevent them from competing fairly with men.
-These barriers might be access to land tenure, inheritance laws, lack of knowledge and access to information, especially in terms of farming techniques and market conditions.
-Women also face deep social-cultural barriers.
-Customs and culture often dictate gender roles and the resulting privileges and life options.
-This especially favors men.
-There have been many studies that show that in times of food stress, families discriminate in favor of males.
-Wives first choose to go without meals ahead of their husbands and children and if food stress is worse they choose to buffer the diets of boys ahead of girls.
-A study found that in Ethiopia girls were more likely to be food insecure than boys.
55
External factors impacting food insecurity
-Political factors
-Environmental shocks
-Global markets and the activity of traders
56
Explain how environmental factors are an external force that can affect food security
-Informal work or subsistence farming can be unpredictable and vulnerable to shocks.
-Environmental shocks such as floods or drought can have devastating impacts on livelihoods and food security, in the short term and increase debt for farmers in the long term.
-Anything from a period of sickness, an unexpected cost or a sudden rise in food prices can quickly move a household from being food secure to being food insecure.
57
Explain how political factors are an external force that can affect food security
-Political factors such as withdrawal of government subsidies to small-scale farmers can mean no safety net and no budget for new seeds.
-Foreign governments can also impact local markets by exporting cheap (often subsidized) food into local markets.
-This undermines local farmers, undercuts their prices and leads to financial losses and ultimately food insecurity.
58
Explain how global markets and the activity of traders are external forces that can affect food security
-Foods are also traded on commodity markets and so their price can fall and rise depending on global markets and the activity of traders.
-The impact of oil prices influences the price of food commodities despite subsistence farmers having no link to oil.
-During times of low food prices, some wholesalers stockpile food, speculating that future food prices will rise.
59
Give an example of how certain ethnic groups may be metabolically or genetically predisposed to obesity when combined with other social and dietary conditions.
-South African obesity is particularly prevalent in Black women and can be linked to fried and high starch diets but this is not shown in men.
-In the UK, obesity in Black women is double that of the national average, including Black men.
-Pacific Island nations have also shown particularly worrying growth rates in obesity.
-This has also coincided with the loss of traditional diets in favour of more processed and fatty imports linked to global food markets.
60
Describe the obesity in Pacific Island Nations
-Pacific Islanders tend to have a naturally big build, but this doesn't account for the high levels of obesity seen in the population.
-Poor diets and reduced exercise have become a major public health concern for the region as they are not only a cause of obesity but also associated diseases such as heart disease, stroke and diabetes, the latter having a genetic basis among locals.
-The epidemic began through the tropical region turning its back on traditional diets of fresh fish and vegetables and replacing them with highly processed and energy-dense food such as white rice, flour, canned foods, processed meats and soft drinks imported from other countries.
61
What does children's poor nutrition lead to as well as obesity?
Stunting
62
Effect of socioeconomic status on weight and height in the UK
Children in poor households are not only likely to be fatter, but also shorter than children from affluent families.
63
How can cycles of supply and demand for unhealthy foods be broken?
With 'smart food policies' by governments, alongside efforts from industry and civil society to create healthier food systems.
64
Define disease diffusion
The spread of disease into new locations
65
When does disease diffusion occur?
When incidences of disease spread out from an initial source
66
The frictional effect of distance, or distance decay, suggests that ___
Areas closer to the source are more likely to be affected by it, and sooner than areas further away from the source
67
What are the four main patterns of disease diffusion that have been identified?
-Expansion, contagious, hierarchal, relocation
-In addition, there is also network diffusion and mixed diffusion.
68
How does the diffusion of infectious diseases tend to occur?
In a 'wave' fashion, spreading from a central source.
69
What physical features can act as a barrier to disease?
Mountains and water bodies
70
What human factors can act as a barrier to diffusion?
Political and economic boundaries may limit the spread of disease
71
The diffusion of disease can be identified as an S-shape curve to show four different phases: ___
Infusion (25th percentile), infection (50th percentile), saturation (75th percentile), and waning to the upper limits.
72
Expansion diffusion
Occurs when the expanding disease has a source and diffuses outwards into new areas
73
Relocation diffusion
-Occurs when the spreading of the disease moves into new areas, leaving behind its origin or source of the disease
-E.g. if a person infected with AIDS moves to a new location
74
Contagious diffusion
The spread of an infectious disease through the direct contact of individuals with those infected
75
Hierarchical diffusion
-Occurs when a disease spreads through an ordered sequence of classes or places
-E.g. Covid 19 reached globally connected cities first before spreading through contagion to neighboring countries, regions, and towns
76
Network diffusion
-Occurs when a disease spreads via transportation and social networks.
-E.g. the spread of AIDS in Southern Africa along transport routes
77
What is the Zika virus?
A mosquito-borne virus that can also be transmitted through sexual contact
78
When did the Zika virus arrive in Brazil?
-May 2014
-It has since spread to 21 other countries in the Americas
79
How was the Zika virus spread?
The mosquito is a poor flier (and can fly only about 400 m), but people are transporting the virus by traveling to and from areas with the disease (relocation diffusion).
80
What can the Zika virus cause?
-Birth defects in children and neurological problems in adults.
-In 2015 El Salvador, Colombia, and Ecuador recommended that women delay pregnancy until 2018
81
Microcephaly as a result of the Zika Virus in Brazil
In October 2015, doctors in northeastern Brazil saw a huge increase in babies born with microcephaly – an
abnormally small head – often with consequent brain damage.
82
What factors affected the transmission of the Zika virus in Brazil?
-Places where air-conditioning, screened windows
and mosquito control is the norm is unlikely to see outbreaks flare up.
-With Brazil hosting the Olympic Games in 2016, the increase in the number of tourists to the country brought a greater risk of the disease spreading to more countries.
83
What is malaria?
A life-threatening disease caused by the plasmodium parasite and transmitted to people via the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito
84
Key facts about malaria
-Malaria is preventable and curable and increased efforts are dramatically reducing the malaria burden in many places.
-Sub-Saharan Africa carries a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden.
-In 2015, the region suffered 88 percent of malaria cases and 90 percent of malaria deaths.
85
What environments does the malarial parasite (plasmodium) thrive in?
-The humid tropics where a minimum temperature of 20°C allows it to complete its life cycle
-The mosquito is the primary host and the human is the secondary
86
What is the mosquito's ideal environment?
-Stagnant water, deltas, and irrigation channels.
-These are often found in densely-populated agricultural regions.
87
What is malaria often triggered by?
-Natural events such as cyclones and flooding or human conflicts such as war, often resulting in refugees.
-They are likely to live in temporary camps with inadequate drainage (open sewers), which are ideal breeding grounds for the mosquito.
88
What is the cost of treating malaria?
-Global financing for malaria control increased from an estimated $960 million in 2005 to $2.5 billion in 2014.
-The direct cost of malaria to individual households includes medication, doctors’ fees, and preventative measures such as bed nets, which help to reduce transmission.
-Infected individuals are unable to work, which can reduce family incomes during the attacks.
89
What are the symptoms of malaria?
-Fever, headache, chills, and vomiting
-If not treated within 24 hours, malaria can
progress to severe illness, often leading to death.
90
Who is most at risk from malaria?
Infants, children under the age of five, pregnant women, and patients with HIV/AIDS, as well as non-immune migrants, mobile populations, and travelers.
91
What does the intensity of malaria transmission depend on?
Factors related to the parasite, the vector, the human host, and the environment
92
Malaria prevention
-Vector control
-Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs)
-Indoor residual spreading (IRS) with insecticides
-Antimalarial medicines
93
What is vector control?
-This is the main way to prevent and reduce malaria
transmission, as recommended by the WHO.
-Two forms of vector control – insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor residual spraying – are
effective in a wide range of circumstances.
-If coverage of vector control interventions within a specific area is high enough, then a measure of
protection will be conferred across the community.
94
What are long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs)?
-These are the preferred form of insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) for public health programs.
-In most settings, WHO recommends LLIN coverage for all people at risk of malaria.
-The most cost-effective way to achieve this is by providing LLINs free of charge, to ensure equal access for all.
-In parallel, effective behavior change communication strategies are required to ensure that all people at risk of malaria sleep under an LLIN every night, and that the net is properly maintained.
95
What is indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides?
-A powerful way to rapidly reduce malaria transmission.
-Its full potential is realized when at least 80 percent of houses in targeted areas are sprayed.
-In some settings, multiple spray rounds are needed to protect the population for the entire malaria season.
96
What are antimalarial medicines?
-These can be used to prevent malaria
-For travellers, malaria can be prevented through chemoprophylaxis, which suppresses the blood stage of malaria infections, thereby preventing malarial disease.
97
The WHO strategy against malaria
The WHO Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016–30 – adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2015 – provides a technical framework for all malaria-endemic countries. It is intended to guide and support regional and country programs as they work towards malaria control and elimination. The strategy sets ambitious but achievable global targets, including:
-reducing malaria incidence by at least 90 percent by 2030
-reducing malaria mortality rates by at least 90 percent by 2030
-eliminating malaria in at least 35 countries by 2030
-preventing a resurgence of malaria in all countries that are malaria-free.
98
More info about malaria needed?
99
Malaria is a ___-borne disease
Vector (mosquitoes)
100
What is cholera?
-An infection of the small intestine caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae
-It is a water-borne disease, although it can also be transmitted by contamination of food
101
What are the two conditions that are needed for cholera outbreaks to occur?
-There must be significant breaches of water sanitation leading to contamination by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae
-Cholera must be present in the population.
102
Symptoms of cholera
-This infection is mostly asymptomatic or causes mild gastroenteritis.
-However, about 5 percent of infected persons develop severe dehydration and acute diarrhea, which can kill within hours.
103
How many people die of cholera every year?
20,000-140,000 deaths every year
104
Diagram showing the transmission of Vibrio cholerae
105
Risk factors for cholera
-Transmission of Vibrio cholerae is relatively easy in areas of poor housing and inadequate sanitation.
-It is particularly the curse of displaced populations living in overcrowded camps.
-Children under five are particularly vulnerable.
106
Clinical treatment for cholera
-Prompt administration of oral rehydration therapy is sufficient to treat 80 percent of patients.
-Very dehydrated cases need intravenous fluids.
-Antibiotics are useful while V. cholerae is still being excreted, but prolonged treatment can lead to antibiotic resistance – a serious problem in treating all infectious illnesses.
-Oral cholera vaccine (OCV) can be effective, but it is important to adopt prevention and control measures as well.
107
Domestic prevention and control measures against cholera
-Drink and use safe water
-Wash your hands
-Dispose of feces
-Handle food hygienically
-Clean up
108
What does the WHO Global Task Force on cholera control work to do?
-Support and implement global strategies to prevent and control cholera
-Provide a forum for cooperation and to strengthen a country's capacity to prevent and control cholera
-Support research
-Increase the visibility of cholera as an important global health problem
109
Human factors that can lead to food insecurity in LICs
-Poor farming techniques
-Political instability
-Cost of seeds/ fertilizers / foodstuffs
-Corruption
-Poor transport links
-Poor storage
-Population increases
-Lack of aid due to militia etc
-Inability to trade in world markets.
110
Using an example of a food production system, state an input, a transfer, a store, and an output
The production of sugar:
-Inputs: water, soil, seeds, capital (human and physical)
-Transfers: harvesting, applying fertilizer
-Stores: sugarcane
-Outputs: sugar
111
Explain how food production systems differ in terms of energy use
-Inputs: The transportation of inputs will require either non-renewable or renewable energy. Farmers close to suppliers will have a smaller energy footprint.
-Transfers: The source of energy used to produce the seeds or animal feed may be non-renewable or renewable. Products can differ in terms of energy efficiency -- wheat and bean have a high efficiencey, beef has a low efficiency.
-Stores: Climate-controlled artificial storage may be needed in countries where crops are cultivated in non-traditional seasons. Other countries may have an annual climate conducive to arable and pastoral farming.
-Outputs: The amount of packaging of harvested crops and animal products will contribute to the amount of energy used in production. Crop residue or animal waste may be reccled and used as energy input, or wasted and not utilized.
112
Explain how food production systems differ in terms of water use
-Inputs: Water in the production of fuel used int he transportation of inputs.
-Transfers: Some countries (e.g. Israel) use drip irrigation, which is highly efficient compared to not monitoring irrigated water.
-Stores: Water supplies may be subject to water loss via evaporation.
-Outputs: Water may be recycled as water input, or wasted and not utilized.
113
Explain a physical reason why food consumption can vary within a country
-There may be a drought which affects subsistence farmers in agricultural areas.
-This will reduce the amount of calories consumed by them and their families.
114
Explain a human reason why food consumption can vary within a country
-Income inequality will mean that different areas will have people on different income levels.
-Those on low incomes may find it challenging to afford enough food to meet an average calorie intake.
-Alternatively, they may be consuming sufficient calories, byt the diet might consist of fast food and processed food only, as these tend to be mroe affordable for low-income groups.
115
State an agricultural innovation that was diffused from one country to another
Drip irrigation
116
Describe the impact of an agricultural innovation (drip irrigation) on the destination country
-The technology behind drip irrigation was initially patented in Israel
-This pioneered the use of drip irrigation and marketed and sold the product in Australia, Egypt, the Phillipines, and the US.
-In the Phillipines, there was a 90% increase in yield compared to traditional irrigation processes (sprinklers) and a 70% reduction in water use.
117
Classify the type of diffusion as the innovation of drip irrigation moved from one country to another
-Relocation: NGOs such as the International Development Enterprises (IDE) have introduced a low-cost version of this technology to countries such as Bangladesh.
-Expansion: The launch and sale of drip irrigation products by private countries in different countries (e.g. Netafim)
-Adoption/acquisition: Farmers in different countries, such as Nicarague, have adopted/purchased the systems.
118
Explain how climate can affect the spread of malaria
-Temperature significantly affects the development of the malaria parasite and the mosquito vector that transmits the disease.
-If temperatures decrease, then it takes longer for the parasite to develop in the mosquito.
-More eggs are laid and more blood is sucked at higher temperatures.
119
Explain how water can affect the spread of malaria
-Water is needed for mosquitos to breed (e.g. just after a rainy season).
-Clean water is preferred over polluted water.
-Stagnant water in streams and rivers is more favorable than fast-flowing rivers.
120
Explain how urbanization can affect the spread of malaria
-While there is plenty of space for vector breeding in rural villages, mosquito breeding sites in urban areas are limited as more space is covered by houses.
-Water sources will be more polluted in urban areas in comparison to rural areas and hence, less favorable for mosquito breeding.
121
Explain how migration can affect the spread of malaria
Migrants working in areas with climate-favorable mosquito conditions may contract the disease and carry it to another area.
122
When was the cholera outbreak in Yemen?
April 2017
123
Physical causes of the cholera outbreak in Yemen
Access to water, sanitation, and knowledge of hygiene practices were all limited.
124
Human causes of the cholera outbreak in Yemen
-Bombing during the civil war destroyed the water infrastrucuture and healthcare facilities, leaving 16 million people without access to either.
-Yemen attracts many migrants from Sub-Saharn African countries in search of a higher quality of life. They had contracted cholera in east African countries and then migrated.
-The UN stated that the Houthi rebel group that controlled northern Yemen refused to allow the delivery of vaccines.
125
Effects of the cholera oubreak in Yemen
-By October 2018, the WHO estimated that there were around 1.2 million cases, over half of which were in children.
-There were approximately 2,500 deaths.
126
Child stunting in India and Afghanistan
-In 2016 42% of children in India were stunted.
-In Afghanistan, it was 53%.
127
Impact of food insecurity on vulnerability to disease
Food-insecure individuals had almost 40% increased odds of having high white blood cell counts, an indicator of infection and immune system activation.
128
Polygamy in Niger & food security
-In Sub-Saharan Africa, polygamy is very common.
-In Niger, it is customary for a man to take a second or even a third wife, and when there was a severe food shortage when crops failed in 2015, many second and third wives of men were limited access to food as the first wives are often given priority.
129
Political causes of South Sudan famine
-One of the causes of the 2017 famine in South Sudan was a war that broke out in 2013, causing millions to be displaced and to live in makeshift camps.
-The government and rebel forces raided cattle.
130
Environmental factors influencing food insecurity in 2 regions
-In 2017, heavy rains in Bangladesh in mid-April filled the northeastern floodplain early and destroyed the annual rice crop before it was ready to be harvested.
-High overnight temperatures reduced corn yields in the USA Corn Belt in 2010 and 2012. (climate change)
131
Statistic on food insecurity & mental health
Food insecurity is associated with a 257% higher risk of anxiety.
A study found that in Ethiopia girls were more likely to be food insecure than boys.
132
Detailed example of water-borne disease- cholera
- April 2017
-
133
Detailed example of water-borne disease- cholera
- April 2017
Physical causes:
- Access to water, sanitation, and knowledge of hygiene practices were all limited.
- It is suggested that the unique climatic conditions over Africa as a result of the strong El Niño of 2015–2016 followed by regional winds over the Gulf of Aden throughout the summer of 2016, had a role in the cholera dissemination of the disease from Somalia to Yemen.
Human causes:
- Bombing during the civil war destroyed the water infrastrucuture and healthcare facilities, leaving 16 million people without access to either.
- Yemen attracts many migrants from Sub-Saharn African countries in search of a higher quality of life. They had contracted cholera in east African countries and then migrated.
- The UN stated that the Houthi rebel group that controlled northern Yemen refused to allow the delivery of vaccines.
Effects:
- By October 2018, the WHO estimated that there were around 1.2 million cases, over half of which were in children. There were approximately 2,500 deaths
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Detailed example of vector-borne disease
