1.3 Population challenges and opportunities Flashcards
1
Q
What changes in population did HICs experince during the 20th century?
A
-Average family size and
-The proportion of people surviving to an older age, giving rise to the phenomenon of an ageing population
2
Q
What changes did LICs and middle-income countries experience in the 20th century?
A
-Changing social attitudes towards the role of women in society.
-This has affected the sex ratio of some societies.
3
Q
What is an ageing population?
A
A population structure where the proportion of people aged 65 and over is high and rising.
4
Q
What causes an ageing population?
A
Increasing life expectancy and can be further exaggerated by the effect of low birth rates.
5
Q
An ageing population is also called a ___
A
‘Greying’ population
6
Q
What is the sex ratio?
A
The relative proportions of men and women in a society’s population
7
Q
In what countries is life expectancy now 80 years or higher?
A
Japan, Iceland, Italy, Australia, Germany, and many other countries
8
Q
How is the proportion of eldely citizens expected to change in HICs as opposed to in MICs?
A
In the future, the proportion of elderly citizens in developed countries will grow higher still, while most middle-income countries will also begin to experience the effects of widespread ageing.
9
Q
Example of how the number of elderly people in society is expected to change in the future
A
Globally, the number of older persons aged over 60 is expected to exceed the number of children aged under 15 for the first time by around 2050, helped significantly by the long-term legacy of China’s one-child rule (which left the world’s largest nation of 1.3 billion people with its own greying ‘time-bomb’).
10
Q
Causes of an ageing population
A
-Increasing life expectancy (exacerbated by low birth rates)
-Migration
11
Q
Example of how migration can be a cause of an aging population
A
-When Poland joined the European Union in 2004, the total number of Polish emigrants living overseas rose quickly from 2 million to 3 million.
-Out-migration of the young has accelerated the rate at which Poland’s population is aging; loss of the young means that those who are not make up a larger proportion of a shrunken population.
12
Q
What are some of the concerns for governments of countries with an aging population?
A
-Meeting the cost of economic care
-Emotional burden on younger and middle-aged people
13
Q
Explain how one of the challenges of an ageing population can be meeting the economic cost of care for the elderly
A
-The elderly often no longer generate much wealth themselves
-Potentially enormous amounts of money must be made available for the elderly’s day-to-day living expenses, health treatments and housing costs.
14
Q
Example of how one of the challenges of an ageing population can be meeting the economic cost of care for the elderly
A
Japan’s healthcare and nursing home costs by 2025 are expected to be almost US$1 trillion.
15
Q
Explain how one of the challenges of an ageing population can be the emotional burden on younger and middle-aged people
A
Rising longevity is placing an emotional burden on younger and middle-aged people who must increasingly act as (unpaid) carers for older relatives who have developed Alzheimer’s disease or another form of dementia.
16
Q
How have the causes of death changed thanks to improvements in healthcare?
A
-Fewer people now die in their 60s and 70s from cancer, heart diseases or strokes.
-Instead, more people now survive into their 80s and 90s, ages at which vulnerability to degenerative brain diseases and disorders becomes greatly increased.
17
Q
What is the downside of the fact that more people now develop degenerative brain diseases?
A
-Many young people are totally unprepared for the role reversal that will occur in later life when, instead of being cared for by their parents, the situation is reversed.
-Moving relatives to a care home may help make life more manageable, but the effects of Alzheimer’s are still upsetting to witness in a loved one.
18
Q
Explain ageing population challenges at the local scale
A
-The issues are amplified further at the local scale sometimes.
-In countries where homes and services for the elderly are funded by local taxes levied on working people, districts with an unusually high proportion of elderly face the most severe financial challenges.
19
Q
Example of ageing population challenges at the local scale
A
In the UK, for instance, many coastal settlements have high proportions of older people living there as a result of age-selective migration.
20
Q
Benefits of an ageing population
A
-Continued employment into old age
-Jobs as actors
-Jobs as politicians
-Involvement in charity and caring for grandchildren
21
Q
Benefits of an ageing population- continued employment into old age
A
-Many elderly people who have worked in skilled occupations such as banking, teaching or medicine continue to work into their 70s and sometimes 80s.
-They may serve as consultants, providing valuable advice to younger staff, perhaps on a part-time basis.
22
Q
Benefits of an ageing population- jobs as actors
A
Older actors are always needed to play film parts – for example, Dumbledore (played by Michael Gambon) and other older Hogwarts teaching staff in the Harry Potter films.
23
Q
Benefits of an ageing population- jobs as politicians
A
In politics, the billionaire Donald Trump was elected as US President at the age of 70.
24
Q
Benefits of an ageing population- involvement in charity and caring for grandchildren
A
-Elderly people often make a range of contributions to society by assisting with the running of charities and good causes.
-Some assist their own families by providing free childcare for grandchildren, thereby allowing both parents to participate in the workforce.
25
Why is it important to note that the very idea of an ‘elderly population’ aged over 65 is increasingly an over-simplification?
There is usually a great difference – in terms of physical health, stamina and the ability to continue generating income – between highly active people in their 70s and far more infirm people aged 90 and over.
26
How have family sizes changed over time?
-In most countries, women now give birth to fewer than three children on average.
-This has had the effect of reducing the average size of a family.
-In the past, it was usual to find two parents sharing their home with up to six or more children in European, Asian and South American countries.
-Today this is far less common and a typical nuclear family comprises between three and five individuals living under the same roof.
27
What social changes have led to a reduction in the average family or household size (other than women having less children)?
-Fewer instances of extended families living together
-Elderly people living on their own
-Divorce
-Gay rights
28
Explain how fewer instances of extended families living together is a social cause of the reduction in average family/household size
-In many high-income countries, it is less common now to find older people living with their children and grandchildren.
-The extended family (where three generations live together) has become largely a thing of the past in some places.
-Government support in the form of pensions and healthcare has meant older people can remain independent and no longer need to rely on their children to support them in old age, thus, they may continue to live alone.
29
Explain how elderly people living on their own is a social cause of the reduction in average family/household size
-In some high-income countries, including the UK, many older people own their houses outright because they bought them at a time when prices were lower.
-The cost of remaining there is therefore low.
-In Europe, an increasing number of elderly widows aged 85 and over live alone in homes they own.
30
Explain how divorce is a social cause of the reduction in average family/household size
Divorce has become more socially acceptable in a growing number of countries, resulting in a larger number of single-parent households.
31
Explain how gay rights are a social cause of the reduction in average family/household size
-Improved rights for lesbian and gay people include the right to marry in an increasing number of countries, including Ireland and Brazil.
-Although some couples have children, more will form two-person households.
32
A common feature of age–sex pyramids is an excess of ___
Male births over female births
33
Natural cause of the imbalance in ratio of boys to girls born
The naturally occurring ratio is 105 boys born for every 100 girls (this imbalance reflects chromosome variations in sperm).
34
Why is the ratio of male to female children more skewed (than the naturally-occuring ratio) in some societies?
-Sex-selective abortion (which is made possible by modern technology allowing couples to discover the gender of a foetus at an early stage of pregnancy)
-Female infanticide (the killing of unwanted new-born female babies, also called gendericide, which sadly still happens in some parts of the world).
35
Table showing countries with a skewed sex ratio, showing significantly more males than females
36
What does the favoring of boys over girls typically reflect?
-The uneven status of men and women in many societies, especially among older age groups.
-This can be the product of an antiquated legal system that does not allow women to inherit land or wealth.
37
Examples of 2 countries with skewed sex ratios
China and India
38
Reasons for the skewed sex ratio in China
-In the past, there was a very strong cultural preference for boys in China.
-The country’s one-child rule – which was introduced in 1980 – led quickly to the growth of a highly unbalanced population pyramid.
-In very poor rural areas, rates of female infanticide were sometimes very high.
-An extreme boy:girl ratio of 4:1 was recorded in some rural counties in the years immediately after the rule was introduced, reflecting the pressing need felt by many poor farming families to gain a male heir.
39
What has China's most recent census revealed about the sex ratio?
That there were 115 males for every 100 females in China as a whole (the actual figure may have been even higher owing to some additional males births going unreported).
40
Statistic showing the skewed sex ratio in India
In India’s Daman and Diu region, there are 1,000 men for every 618 women according to one report.
41
What action has India taken to deal with its skewed sex ratio?
-India's government has long recognized the problem of unbalanced births.
-In 1994, it passed the Prohibition of Sex Selection Act that prohibits medical professionals from informing expectant mothers of the sex of their foetus.
-This law is not always upheld, however.
42
Statistic showing the skewed sex ratio in India
In India’s Daman and Diu region, there are 1,000 men for every 618 women according to one report.
43
Examples of population management policies (broad)
-‘Carrot’ (reward) and ‘stick’ (fine or punishment) policies have been used to reduce or increase birth rates in different contexts.
-Economic measures are needed to deal with the challenge of rising elderly dependency; these may be accompanied by other legislation in relation to the retirement age.
-Policies designed to encourage gender equality and improved rights for women may also have the indirect effect of reducing a society’s fertility rate.
44
Examples of small steps taken by some governments to plan for the 'demographic time bomb' (aging societies)
-Minor adjustments to the retirement age
-Encouraging workers to invest more of their earnings in personal pension schemes
-Stimulating public discussion on whether families should do more to care for older relatives.
45
What is the problem with small steps taken by policies to plan for an ageing population?
-The measures introduced so far in countries like Germany, the UK and Japan fall far short of what is needed.
-Governments do not want to raise taxes for younger workers; nor do they want to upset older voters by raising the retirement age too high or too fast.
-As a result, it remains unclear how many states will be able to fund services for the elderly through taxation by mid-century.
46
Challenges of an ageing population in Poland
Poland’s government has recently acknowledged that its whole state pension system will become unsustainable unless people are prepared to work longer.
47
Reasons why Poland's whole state pension system will become unsustainable unless people are prepared to work longer
-Pension costs, at 12 per cent of GDP, are already huge. Part of the problem is early retirement, with many people stopping work before they reach 60.
-The current shortfall in taxes to pay for pensions: Poland has lost millions of young workers in recent years. Since it joined the European Union in 2004, the total number of Polish emigrants living overseas has risen from 2 to 3 million.
-Although some migrants send home money as remittances, this does not compensate the government for the taxes it might have raised if more of its citizens had remained at home.
48
Reaction to Polish government warning that it might need to raise the retirement age
Angry crowds gathered in front of parliament where some set fire to pictures of ministers.
49
Global interactions between national governments to find ways to deal with an ageing population
-Increasingly, national governments are working together to tackle the ageing population challenge.
-The leading G8 group of nations met in December 2013 to discuss the challenge of dementia and how best to coordinate their efforts to tackle it.
-After their summit meeting, the G8 announced its plans to develop a coordinated international research action plan to target gaps in medical research.
50
Examples of civil society and businesses coping with an ageing population
-Swiss TNC Unilever, the world’s biggest food and drinks company, is modifying its packaging and products with the elderly in mind: this includes making wrappers easier to open.
-German supermarket chain Kaiser has adapted many of its stores in ways that appeal to older shoppers. This includes brighter lighting, non-slip floors and extra-wide aisles that mobility scooters can navigate easily.
51
Future consumer spending growth in most high-income countries will be driven increasingly by ___
-Older people.
-More and more businesses are adapting their products and services accordingly.
52
What do pro-natalist policies aim to do?
Raise the national fertility rate
53
Examples of countries that have adopted pro-natalist policies that aim to raise the national fertility rate
-Poland
-France
54
Pro-natalist policies in Poland
-Part of the Polish parliament’s response to its ageing population problem has been new legislation that pays women for each child they have in an effort to boost the country’s falling population.
-Under the scheme announced in 2015, every woman receives a monthly payment of 500 zlotys (around US$150) per child (some economists are unconvinced Poland’s government will be able to meet the cost of this policy, however).
55
Pro-natalist policies in France
-Many European countries make monthly child allowance payments to families.
-In 2015, French mothers received the equivalent of around US$150 per child per month (excluding their first child).
-Concerned with underpopulation, the French government first introduced cash payments for children during the 1930s.
-In the decades after the Second World War, France had the highest child allowances in Europe, often accounting for around 30 per cent of a family’s income.
56
What is civil society?
-Any organization or movement that works in the area between the household, the private sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern.
-Civil society includes non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, trade unions, academic institutions and faith-based organizations.
57
Define underpopulation
A state of imbalance where there are too few people relative to the resources a nation possesses to make effective use of them, lowering quality of life for all as a result.
58
Define overpopulation
-A state of imbalance where there are too many people relative to the resources a nation possesses.
-The resulting unemployment and insecurity threatens everyone’s quality of life.
59
What do anti-natalist policies aim to do?
Curb population growth and prevent overpopulation from occuring
60
Example of an anti-natalist policy
China's one-child rule
61
When was China's one-child rule in place?
From 1980 to 2016
62
China's real population vs. what it might have been without the one-child policy
-With 1.35 billion people living there in 2015, China is one of the world’s two most populated countries (India is the other).
-Without the one-child rule, it is estimated that China’s population might have risen to 1.7 billion, with potentially disastrous consequences.
63
Historical reasons for China's one-child rule
-A devastating famine was linked with the deaths of 25 million people between 1959 and 1961, however.
-Following this, China’s leaders came to believe that the country now had too many mouths to feed; increasingly strict rules began to dictate how many children could be born in China.
64
How did fines for breaking the one-child policy change over time?
-Initially, the rule stipulated that all couples, whatever their circumstances, could have one child only.
-If people disregarded the policy and had a second child, they were fined US$4,000.
-This represented a lot of money for poor Chinese families and only very affluent couples could afford to pay.
-Additional sanctions were used: if a state official had a second child then he or she would lose their job.
65
How did China's one-child policy change after around 2005?
-The rule was softened progressively.
-Two babies were permitted for people under certain circumstances e.g. people living in the countryside; parents whose first child was a girl; parents whose first child had been born with a disability; parents whose only child was killed by the major earthquake in Sichuan Province in 2008
66
Negative impacts of China's one-child rule
67
What was the outcome of China's one-child rule?
-The gradual relaxation and eventual abolition of the one-child rule in 2016 reflected the fact that its goal had been achieved.
-In fact, fears of overpopulation have been replaced by the rising challenge of a ‘top-heavy’ population pyramid with a high dependency ratio.
-This means that more births may be required in the future, rather than fewer.
68
China's projected population structure in 2025
69
Example of how pro-natal or anti-natal policies that can have implications for gender equality can be controversial
-For instance, the Polish government’s decision to pay women to have more children has been attacked by gender equality campaigners who say it encourages the stereotyping of women as ‘stay-at-home mothers’.
-The Congress of Women, a women’s lobby group, has said the proposal will discourage Polish women from working and strip them of their financial independence.
70
Alongside the one-child rule, China’s government has tried to change ___
Social attitudes (the way people think)
71
How has greater gender equality lowered the fertility rate in many societies?
By removing the imperative for couples to produce a son who will inherit the family's wealth or name.
72
What did the one-child rule's terrible side effect of female infanticide prompt China's government to do?
-To fund education campaigns to bring about social change.
-In some rural districts, attempts were made to re-educate prospective parents using posters bearing the slogan ‘daughters are as good as sons’ – the hope being that fathers might learn to think more positively about having a girl as their only child.
73
What factors (other than infanticide) have played a positive role in changing social attitudes towards gender in China?
-Economic development and rising property prices
-The presence of strong female role models in China
74
Explain how economic development has played a positive role in changing social attitudes towards gender in China
-Economic development and rising property prices have helped erode Chinese society’s traditional preference for sons by increasing the cost of raising a male heir.
-Traditionally, Chinese families who could afford to would buy a property for their son before he was allowed to marry.
-Soaring housing prices in China’s major cities have made this an expensive tradition to maintain.
75
Explain how the presence of strong female role models has played a positive role in changing social attitudes towards gender in China
-Many of China's wealthiest individuals are women who run their own businesses, such as Zhang Yin, the head of a recycled paper company, whose personal fortune amounted to US$4 billion in 2015.
-Eight out of 10 of the world’s very richest ‘self-made’ women are Chinese.
-Topping the list in 2015 was ‘touchscreen Queen’ Zhou Qunfei (founder of Lens, a company which makes touchscreens for mobile devices).
76
Gender equality policies in Scandinavia
-In Sweden, paid parental leave is 480 days, which is for both parents.
-For women especially, this means they take some time off to focus on childbearing and parenthood, all with the security that their career will still be there when they go back to it.
-This allows women to combine work and family.
77
Why is human trafficking a highly gendered form of crime?
Because victims are overwhelmingly female
78
Where did female victims of human trafficking found in the US come from?
66 countries in different regions (e.g. China, Mexico, and Nigeria)
79
What is human trafficking?
-The illegal transportation and/or exploitation of people or human parts.
-It may take place where the person lives or may involve relocation within the country or across national borders.
80
What is usually the purpose of human trafficking?
It is usually for the purposes of forced labor or sexual exploitation
81
What activities does human trafficking cover?
-Forced labour (modern-day slavery)
-Sexual slavery or commercial exploitation
-Forced marriage
-Extraction of organs such as kidneys and/or tissue (surrogacy, removal of a woman's ova, or eggs).
82
Statistics about human trafficking
-In 2014, forced labor generated US$150 billion in profit.
-In 2012, 21 million victims were trapped in modern-day slavery
83
Example of government taking action against human trafficking
-In 2014, the UK launched the Modern Slavery Strategy.
-It consisted of four parts:
1) Pursue (prosecute trraffickers)
2) Protect (the monitoring of supply chains to ensure transparency)
3) Prepare (support those who have been trafficked via care contracts)
4) Prevent (advertising campaigns to inform potential victims of trafficking)
84
Why are there benefits of population growth?
-Because a larger ‘pool’ of people is likely to produce more truly exceptional individuals who will innovate and design in unanticipated ways that benefit everyone else enormously.
-Another advantage of a large population is the sizeable labour force that can help a country to industrialize.
-People are the human resources that allow domestic industries to thrive or act as a magnet for foreign investors.
-Much of China’s ‘economic miracle’ can be attributed to the enormous size of its cheap labour force.
85
Define human resources
The working-age people found in a place who can generate wealth with the skills and capabilities they possess (dependent on their educational levels, the languages they speak and their capacity to innovate and invent).
86
It is not just population SIZE that matters; economists and geographers are interested in the benefits brought by a particular type of ___
Population structure
87
What is the demographic dividend?
A short-term demographic benefit that is ‘cashed in’ by a country when it moves from stage 2 to stage 3 of the DTM
88
'Bulge' in population puramid during the early decades of stage 3 of the DTM
-A ‘bulge’ develops in the population pyramid between roughly the ages of 15 and 35.
-These are the more youthful and energetic cohorts of the working-age population.
89
The 'bulge' that develops during the early decades of stage 3 of the DTM is a product of the ___
-Time lag of demographic transition: declining infant mortality (occurring immediately following improvements in health, hygiene and food supply during stage 2) is only followed later by a fall in the number of births (because moral codes governing birth control and sexuality are at first resistant to change).
-The population pyramids for Angola and Vietnam show this. In Angola (stage 2), women still give birth to six children and the dependency ratio remains high with many young dependants, whereas Vietnam (stage 3) has recently gained a low ratio of very young dependants compared with working-age groups.
90
Significance of the DD in Asia
-The DD played an important role in the emergence of the ‘Asian Tiger’ economies during the 1960s and is one reason for China’s fast growth in recent decades.
-In such cases, the movement of large, youthful cohorts into working age, accompanied by falling births, boosts economic and social development.
91
Why does the movement of large, youthful cohorts into the working age, accompanied by falling births, boost economic and social development? (demographic dividend)
-A large, young workforce serves as a powerful magnet for ‘footloose’ global capital
-Workers with fewer children begin making investments, contributing to financial growth
-Women become more likely to enter the formal workforce, promoting greater gender equality
-Salaried workers quickly become consumers; so global retailers and media corporations view these countries as important emerging markets (MTV and Disney are targeting India in particular).
92
Which types of countries are more recently beginning to enjoy their own demographic dividend?
Emerging economies in Asia, Latin America, and increasingly, Africa.
93
Recent DD in Asia- example
Indonesia is currently cashing in a major demographic dividend (66 percent of its 240 million people are of working age and 90 percent are literate)
94
Recent DD in Latin America- example
-Brazil began to enjoy its demographic dividend around 2000; today, it is home to 130 million working-age people out of a total of 192 million.
-In Colombia, just 33 per cent of the population is dependent; and with a literacy rate of 90 per cent, the future looks promising.
95
Recent DD in Africa- example
-South Africa is beginning to profit from the demographic dividend.
-Mauritius, Morocco and Algeria recently experienced falling fertility.
96
What does the demographic dividend look like in developed countries?
Developed countries, generally, enjoyed the demographic dividend a long time ago, with exceptions.
-Ireland experienced a late decline in fertility in the 1980s that delivered a demographic dividend in the 1990s (its ‘Celtic Tiger’ growth phase).
-The USA, where a relatively large influx of younger immigrants has provided an extended demographic dividend, is an important reminder that migration shapes population structure too.
97
Why is a demographic dividend not always delivered when population structure changes?
Some countries fail to make the most of their human resources because of other factors:
-poor education
-poor governance that doesn't allow for economic growth
-government corruption e.g. Egypt & Tunisia
-political instability
-youthful out-migration
98
Explain how some countries fail to make the most of the demographic dividend because of poor education
A large working-age population is a wasted opportunity if numeracy and literacy are weak (a concern for some Indian states, where primary and secondary education performance is poor).
99
Explain how some countries fail to make the most of the demographic dividend because of poor governance that doesn't allow for economic growth
-Good governance is essential.
-Performance of the manufacturing and tertiary sector is determined by economic policies that affect levels of free trade, entrepreneurial activity and inward investment.
-Providing a framework for growth remains a challenge for some countries (notably Pakistan, according to the British Council).
100
Give an example of how some countries fail to make the most of the demographic dividend because of government corruption
In Egypt and Tunisia, where government revenue was, until recently, allegedly siphoned off for the benefit of a small ruling clique, ordinary people received little in the way of ‘trickle-down’ benefits from their own demographic dividends.
101
Explain how some countries fail to make the most of the demographic dividend because of political instability
-Political instability jeopardizes the climate for long-term investment.
-Asian ‘success stories’ have experienced generally greater political stability (albeit sometimes in non-democratic forms) than parts of Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.
-Today, erratic and unpredictable rule can be a powerful deterrent for global capital.
102
Explain how some countries fail to make the most of the demographic dividend because of youthful out-migration
Youthful out-migration, as in Mexico, may jeopardize receipt of the demographic dividend.
103
The demographic dividend is, at best, a ___ benefit only.
Temporary
104
Explain why the DD is, at best, a temporary benefit only
-Once several decades have passed, a large number of older workers cease working.
-With fewer young workers to fund care for the elderly, the dependency ratio begins to rise again, this time involving retirement costs (a ‘demographic debt’) rather than childcare expense.
105
Give an example of how the demographic dividend is a temporary benefit
-Japan moved through the demographic transition ahead of other Asian nations and benefited from a demographic dividend and economic boom in the 1960s, must now pay for an increasingly elderly population.
-By 2030, we will know if China, whose recent demographic dividend and ‘economic miracle’ owe so much to the 1979 one-child rule, can afford to do the same.
106
India's imminent demographic dividend is one important reason for its new ___
'Superpower' status
107
What population changes occurring in India mean that it has an imminent DD?
Until recently, a dependency ratio close to 0.6 had slowed the country’s growth. Now, falling fertility means that by 2030 it could be as low as 0.4. This will mean a higher proportion of population contributing to economic output (and with fewer children to look after, more women entering paid employment).
108
On account of which population changes is the future theoretically bright for India? (DD)
-In 2020, its median age was 28. That means a growing pool of buyers for goods and services and a growing middle class.
-India’s giant labour force could attract foreign investors who are deterred by rising wages in China (manufacturing labour costs there are nearly four times higher than in India).
109
Why may India fail to take advantage of the imminent demographic dividend?
-The literacy rate is around 74 percent (compared with 97 percent in China). Without improvement, this threatens India’s economic development: large numbers of young workers may lack the skills needed to find well-paid employment and contribute to national economy growth.
-India’s government has been criticized for its rules and ‘red tape’, which have sometimes deterred foreign investors. In some industrial sectors, TNCs are obliged legally to work in partnership with a local Indian company if they want to gain market access: not all companies are prepared to work in this way.
-As a result, political and social factors could mean that India fails to catch up with China despite its increasingly favourable demographic characteristics.
110
What are the benefits of a demographic dividend?
-Increased proportion of the population in the independent age range –provides a larger work force, increase in economic growth, potentially a largermarket, increase in tax returns
-Falling fertility rates –more women enter the workforce, boosting gender equity, lower proportion of children to support, frees up resources foreign vestment in economic development/family welfare
-Attracts large amounts of foreign investment, the nation becomes more important on the global stage.
-Increase in savings rate –working age is the prime period for saving, working population saving for old age
-For example, India has one of the youngest populations and this will increase economic growth due to an increase in the proportion of the independent population that provides a workforce.
111
Causes of human trafficking
-Poverty: The effects of living in poverty can result in children or family members being sold in order for the rest of the family to be able to survive.
-Lack of education: This can be a barrier to employment and some may be lured into human trafficking in order to earn money.
-Natural disasters: After a natural disaster, people may become slaves in order to pay for their passage away from a location. The loss of family members or their homes may force them to turn to prostitution in order to survive.
112
Impact of UK's Modern Slavery Strategy and shortcomings
Impacts:
-Between 2016 and 2017, potential victim identification increased by 35%
Shortcomings:
-The prosecution rate is still very low, with only 4% of convictions resulting in legal action
113
Example of a policy that promoted gender equality (Canada)
In 2015, the newly elected prime minister Justin Trudeau divided cabinet posts equally between men and women.
114
How many days is the parental leave in Sweden?
480 days (for both parents)
115
Example of a policy that promotes gender equality (Rwanda)
-An increase in skilled health providers during childbirth: Rwanda's government specifically prioritized maternal and child health providers in the rebuilding, including doctors, nurses, and midwives, all at the community level.
-Family planning has empowered women to manage family size and take more charge of their reproductive lives: women can plan how many children they want to have and when they want to have them.
116
How many births did China's one-child policy prevent?
400 million (Chinese officials estimate)
