Flaw/ Descriptive Weakening Flashcards

1
Q

Similar to…

A
  • weakening questions
  • method reasoning
  • describe
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2
Q

why is wrong but….

A

how does it need to look it to make it wright

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3
Q

For each answer choice ask:

A
  1. descriptively accurate? (yes, the argument does assume this)
  2. describe the flaw? (is that why the argument is wrong)

in order for answer choice to be correct must past step 1 and 2

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4
Q

19 different kinds of flaws.

A

However, it does not contain all kinds of flaws.

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5
Q
  1. Attacking the source of the argument
A

To attack an argument you may attack:

1) the premises (which never happens on the LSAT); or
2) the support the premises give to the conclusion

What you DO NOT get to do is to attack the author, his past acts or arguments, his motivation, where the argument comes from, or anything other than (1) or (2).

Sometimes you’ll hear this type of flaw described as an “ad hominem,” which is Latin for “to the man.” For instance, saying that the Congressman voted to change the law because he had significant investments in the pertinent industry, and therefore the bill should not be passed. That argument attacks the person making the argument but says nothing about whether there are justifiable reasons the bill should or should not be passed.

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6
Q
  1. Uses terms unclearly/equivocation
A

The author uses a term (with more than one meaning) inconsistently. For example, “public interest” in one sense means what is in the best interest of the public (e.g., clean air, roads, schools). In another sense, it means what the public is interested in (e.g., celebrity gossip). The shift in word meaning will often be subtle and hard to notice.

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7
Q
  1. Analogies that really aren’t analogous enough
A

All arguments by analogy fall apart at some point. At some point the two things being analogized lose their relevant similarities and the analogy cannot continue. We can say attacking LSAT questions is like attacking enemy starships.

But it’s not is it.

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8
Q
  1. Appealing to authority in an area outside their expertise
A

Appealing to an authority where the subject matter is outside the expertise of the authority. For example, a dentist’s opinions on automotive maintenance is not authoritative.

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9
Q
  1. Causation confusions
A

Whenever the LSAT concludes or assumes that A causes B, 99.9% of the time it’s wrong. They’ll tell you A is correlated with B or that A coincided with B and therefore A caused B. Maybe. That’s just one possible explanation for the correlation. Here are the other 3 possible explanations:

1) B caused A
2) C caused both A and B
3) A and B are merely coincidentally correlated and really something else, X, caused B. We see this a lot with accident rate and speed sign questions. New speed limit sign was put up! Accident rates drop! Therefore, it must be that the new speed limit sign dropped the accident rate. Maybe. But maybe there was an increase in cop cars patrolling the area and that’s what actually caused the drop in accident rates. The speed limit sign was just coincidentally there.

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10
Q
  1. Circular reasoning
A

Assuming what you’re trying to prove. The premise is a mere restatement of the conclusion.

“Everything I say is true. This is true because I said it, and everything I say is true.”

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11
Q
  1. Confusing necessary and sufficient conditions
A

The oldest trick in the book.

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12
Q
  1. False dichotomy
A

A false dichotomy only pretends to divide the universe into two binary halves. It is not a real contradiction. Consider this real contradiction: cats and non-cats. That cleanly cuts the universe into two halves. Garfield? Simba? Hello Kitty? That furry creature that lives in your home, eats your food, drinks your water, basically is dependent on you for its very survival but considers you with utter disdain? Yeah, cats.

What about Albert Einstein, the MacBook Pro, dogs, ice cream, love? Those are non-cat.

Everything you can conceive of falls cleanly into either the “cats” category or the “non-cats” category and nothing is left out.

Here’s a false dichotomy: Cats and dogs. See how that leaves out Einstein, MacBook Pro, and Love? They are neither cats nor dogs.

Basically, the LSAT writers know we often can’t tell the difference between false dichotomies and true contradictions and they hurt us.

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13
Q
  1. Confusing probability for certainty
A

Could be is not must be. Even if something is 99% likely to happen, it does not mean that it will happen.

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14
Q
  1. Confusing “is” for “ought”
A

Don’t confuse the descriptive for the prescriptive. Descriptive simply describes the state of the world. The tree is small. The lake is murky. Prescriptive reveals values. The tree ought to be big. The lake should be clear. The prescriptive reveals what we care about. You will typically encounter a descriptive premise leading to a prescriptive conclusion. For example, the house is on fire therefore we should put the fire out. That’s not a good argument. There may be a number of reasons why we wouldn’t want to put the fire out. We always need a bridge premise to take us from the descriptive world of the premises to the prescriptive world of the conclusion. The bridge premise in the example argument above would be: Houses that are on fire ought to have their fires put out.

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15
Q
  1. Percentages v. quantity
A

Percentages don’t necessarily reveal quantity and vice versa.

For example, Group A wants a 10% raise and Group B wants a 50% raise. Who will earn more money afterward? Who is asking for more money? We have no way to know based on this information.

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16
Q
  1. Surveys and samplings to reach a general conclusion
A

Remember that surveys and samplings must be random (that is, non-biased). Asking a group of 20 year olds about who they are voting for will only tell you who 20 year olds are voting for (assuming they’re a statistically random set of 20 year olds regarding race, gender, etc.), not who the entire country will vote for.

17
Q
  1. Hasty generalization
A

Hasty generalization is very similar to sampling error. The difference is that the conclusion is very broad. You cannot make a generalization based on small sample size or based on one or two incidents.

18
Q
  1. Experiments to reach a general conclusion
A

Experiments to reach a general conclusion must include a control group. It must also establish the baseline of what is measured before the experiment begins.

19
Q
  1. Your argument fails, therefore the opposite of your conclusion must be true
A

Be careful of arguments that try to do this. Just because you’ve wrecked someone’s argument, doesn’t mean that you get to conclude the opposite of his conclusion. If I make a crappy argument for going to the movies tonight as opposed to going to a bar or doing any number of things, you can’t just show me why my argument sucks and conclude: therefore we should go to a bar. First of all, there could be other arguments made to support going to the movies. Additionally, you still have the burden of making an argument that we should go to the bar.

20
Q
  1. Relative v. absolute
A

A is faster than B, therefore A is fast. Well, not necessarily. A is faster than B in relative terms. It doesn’t imply that A is fast in absolute terms. For example, we know that the conclusion in this statement is not true: “Hippopotamuses are smaller than an elephant. Therefore, hippopotamuses are small.” Or take this statement: “Turtles are faster than ants. Therefore, turtles are fast.”

21
Q
  1. Confusing one possible solution for the only solution
A

There are many ways to solve a problem. Just because one solution solves a problem doesn’t mean that particular solution is the only solution that can solve the problem. Nor, for that matter, does it mean it is the best solution. If I nuke Cleveland, then the city’s public education problem kind of disappears… along with everything else. So, yeah, not the best solution.

This flaw can also be used in the negative. This happens when one solution to a problem turns out to not solve the problem, and then the conclusion might say that the problem cannot be solved or that the problem shouldn’t be solved. The flaw remains: just because one solution to a problem is inadequate doesn’t mean that the problem itself cannot be solved.

22
Q
  1. Red herring
A

This happens when the argument doesn’t address the relevant issue. Rather, it addresses some other issue that is tangential or has nothing to do with the relevant issue but, for some reason, commands your attention.

23
Q
  1. Tradition fallacy and novelty fallacy
A

The fact that something is old doesn’t mean that it is right or better. In the same vein, just because things have been done a certain way for a long time doesn’t mean that it is right or better. See slavery.

Likewise, just because something is new doesn’t entail that it is the best course of action. Nor does it entail that the old thing or idea is no longer relevant or true. Change for the sake of change is not an argument; there must be something that shows the change is better.

24
Q
  1. Confusing part v. whole
A

There’s a lot of mis-information floating around about this one. You might have heard that the rules is “properties of parts never carry to the whole” or “properties of the whole never carry to its constituent parts”. That’s not right. It’s more nuanced than that.

The correct way to think about it is in terms of properties that transfer v. properties that don’t transfer. Some properties transfer from part to whole or from whole to part. Some properties don’t. You have to look at it on a case by case basis.

For example, a drop of water is “wet”. We can say that being “wet” is a property of a drop of water. Does that property transfer up (to the whole) or down (to its parts)? Well, that depends actually. If we’re talking about a pool of water, then that property transfers. A pool of water (whole) is wet just like a drop of water (part) is wet. If we’re talking about the molecules of a drop of water, then that property does not transfer. Each water molecule, H2O (part), is not wet even though a (whole) bunch of them, namely, a drop of water, is wet.

Think about ballet dancers. Each one could be beautiful and graceful like swans. But if you put them together in a group, the properties of “beauty” and “grace” may or may not transfer up. They could dance well together making the whole more beautiful and more graceful than each dancer individually. Or they could dance terribly together, getting in each other’s way or backstabbing each other making the whole an ugly unsightly mess.

25
Q
  1. Beliefs v. facts
A

Consider the following argument and see if you think it’s any good.

A fast radio burst (FRB) is a high-energy astrophysical phenomenon manifested as a transient radio pulse lasting only a few milliseconds. Dr. Lorimer knows that her colleague’s lab detected such a burst earlier this year. Therefore, Dr. Lorimer knows that her colleague’s lab detected a radio pulse lasting only a few milliseconds.

If you thought the argument was a decent, then you took the bait.

The error in the above argument has to do with conflicting facts about the world with people’s beliefs or knowledge of those facts. In the above argument, it’s clear to us just what a FRB is. Namely, that it’s a high-energy astro… you get it. But it’s not clear at all that Dr. Lorimer knows what an FRB is, except that her colleague’s lab detected one. Clearly, the conclusion does not follow.

26
Q

inappropriately relies on the opinion of experts

A

doctors talking about agriculture

27
Q

presupposing what is set to establish

A

circular

28
Q

overgeneralization

A

talks about one subject and then mentions another by saying that all have the same conditions.

29
Q

As you read the passage…

A

focus on details.

find the connection between the premise and conclusion

30
Q

argument by analogy

A

treats two things are different as similar

31
Q

Circular

A

the conclusion assumes what’s trying to prove

32
Q

opinion

A

believes

*some statements include beliefs and data.

33
Q

yeah but….

A

yeah but…

this can help you find the gap between the premise and the conclusion because flaws are similar to weakening questions.