Flaw Flashcards
Art student: Great works of art evoke passionate responses in those who view them. Thus, since it is well known in art circles that the provocative work of abstract painter Ezekiel Reilly elicits intensely emotional responses in those who view them, his art is great.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument’s reasoning?
A) One of the premises used to support the argument’s conclusion assumes the truth of that conclusion
B) The argument treats a condition that is necessary for having a certain quality as if it must also be sufficient for having that quality
C) The argument misapplies a general claim about the members of a class to an atypical instance of that class
D) The argument contains a generalization derived form an insufficient number of instances
E) The argument draws a conclusion expressing a value judgment from premises that do not involve statements about values
93.2.12
B) The argument treats a condition that is necessary for having a certain quality as if it must also be sufficient for having that quality
The olecranon process is a bony part of the mammalian elbow. The shorter the olecranon process, the faster the forelimbs can typically be moved. Predatory mammals must move their forelimbs very quickly when attacking prey, and thus generally have short olecranon processes. It has recently been found that the extinct mammal Megatherium had a short olecranon process. Hence, in all probability, Megatherium was a predator.
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?
A) It fails to address the possibility that most mammals with short olecranon processes have not been predators
B) It takes for granted that the only reason predators need to move their forelimbs quickly is to attack prey
C) It overlooks the possibility that Megatherium could have been a successful predator even if it did not have a short olecranon process
D) It takes for granted that, on average, the olecranon processes of extinct mammals were no shorter than those of living mammals are
E) It fails to address the possibility that a longer olecranon process may confer some other advantage, such as greater strength
93.2.20
A) It fails to address the possibility that most mammals with short olecranon processes have not been predators
Columnist: Consent forms filled out by subjects prior to their participation in tests of experimental medicines designed to treat the diseases from which they are suffering show that almost all subjects accept the risk of receiving ineffective substances. This casts doubt on the claim made by some medical ethicists that many test subjects resent being given placebos (as happens to roughly half of all test subjects) or reset being given medicines that turn out to be ineffective (as also often occurs).
The reasoning in the columnist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument
A) infers that tow phenomena are associated merely from the claims that there are many instances in which both phenomena are present
B) uses as evidence the opinions of people who are unlikely to be qualified to make informed judgments about the scientific value of placebos
C) uses evidence drawn from a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative
D) takes for granted that most test subjects do not change their attitudes toward the chance of taking ineffective substances once the substances they take turn out to be ineffective
E) draws a conclusion that is essentially about a moral issue by appealing to evidence that is purely factual
93.2.25
D) takes for granted that most test subjects do not change their attitudes toward the chance of taking ineffective substances once the substances they take turn out to be ineffective
Career consultant: The most popular career advice suggests emphasizing one’s strengths to employers and downplaying one’s weaknesses. research shows this advice to be incorrect. A study of 314 managers shows that those who use self-deprecating humor in front of their employees are more likely to be seen by them as even-handed, thoughtful, and concerned than are those who do not.
The career consultant’s reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A) bases a conclusion about how one group will respond to self-deprecation on information about how a different group responds to it
B) ignores the possibility that what was viewed positively in the managers’ self-deprecating humor was the self-deprecation and not its humor
C) ignores the possibility that non-self-deprecating humor might have been viewed even more possitively than self-deprecating humor
D) infers form the fact that self-deprecating humor was viewed positively that non humorous self-deprecation
E) bases a conclusion about certain popular career advice on a critique of only one part of that advice
46.2.11
A) bases a conclusion about how one group will respond to self-deprecation on information about how a different group responds to it
It is now clear that the ancient Egyptians were the first society to produce alcoholic beverages. It had been thought that the ancient Babylonians were the first; they had mastered the process of fermentation for making wine as early as 1500 BC. However, archaeologists have discovered an Egyptian cup dating from 2000 BC whose sides depict what appears to be an Egyptian brewery, and whose chemical residue reveals that it contained a form of alcoholic beer.
The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?
A) It makes a generalization about Egyptian society based on a sample so small that it is likely to be unrepresentative.
B) It uses the term “alcoholic beverage” in a different sense in the premises than in the conclusion.
C) It presumes, without providing justification, that because one society developed a technology before another, the development in the latter was dependent on the development in the former.
D) It ignores the possibility that the first known instance of a kind is not the first instance of that kind.
E) It provides no evidence of rate claim that the Babylonians produced wine as early as 1500 BC.
46.2.24
D) It ignores the possibility that the first known instance of a kind is not the first instance of that kind.
Editorial: A recently passed law limits freedom of speech in order to silence dissenters. It has been said that those who are ignorant of history will repeat its patters. If this is true, then those responsible for passing the law must be ignorant of a great deal of history. Historically, silencing dissenters has tended to promote undemocratic policies and establishment of authoritarian regimes.
The editorialist’s reasoning is flawed in that it fails to take into account that
A) the law may have other purposes in addition to silencing dissenters
B) certain freedoms might sometimes need to be limited in order to ensure the protection of certain other freedoms
C) some historical accounts report that legal restrictions on freedom of speech have occasionally undermined the establishment of authoritarian regimes
D) many good laws have been passed by people who are largely ignorant of history
E) even those who are not ignorant of history may repeat its patterns
(Fails to take into account/overlooks possibility ==> does this answer weaken the argument?)
E) even those who are not ignorant of history may repeat its patterns
Columnist: Neuroscientists have found that states of profound creativity are accompanied by an increase in theta rain waves, which occur in many regions of the brain, including the hippocampus. They also found that listening to music increases theta waves dramatically. Thus, one can again a state of profound creativity merely by listening to a tape of recorded music.
The columnist’s reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A) takes for granted that there is a causal connection between the hippocampus and being in a state of profound creativity
B) fails to consider that music is not necessary for one to be in a state of profound creativity
C) does not rule out the possibility that listening to music by means other than a tape recording also increases theta waves
D) ignores the possibility that an increase in theta waves may not always be accompanied by a state of profound creativity
E) provides insufficient reasons to believe that people who are not in states of profound creativity have low levels of theta brain waves
D) ignores the possibility that an increase in theta waves may not always be accompanied by a state of profound creativity
The probability of avoiding heart disease is increased if one avoids fat in one’s diet. Furthermore, one is less likely to eat fat if one avoids eating dairy foods. Thus the probability of maintaining good health is increased by avoiding dairy foods.
The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?
A) The argument ignores the possibility that, even though a practice may have potentially negative consequences, its elimination may also have negative consequences.
B) The argument fails to consider the possibility that there are more ways than one of decreasing the risk of a certain type of occurrence.
C) The argument presumes, without providing justification, that factors that carry increased risks of negative consequences ought to be eliminated.
D) The argument fails to show that the evidence appealed to is relevant to the conclusion asserted.
E) The argument fails to consider that what is probable will not necessarily occur.
A) The argument ignores the possibility that, even though a practice may have potentially negative consequences, its elimination may also have negative consequences.
Some psychologists claim that, in theory, the best way to understand another person would be through deep empathy, whereby one would gain a direct and complete grasp of that person’s motivations. But suppose they are right; then there would be no way at all to achieve understanding, since it is psychologically impossible to gain a direct and complete grasp of another person’s motivations. But obviously one can understand other people; thus these psychologists are wrong.
The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it
A) fails to adequately define the key phrase “deep empathy”
B) assumes something that it later denies, resulting in a contradiction
C) confuses a theoretically best way of accomplishing something with the only way of accomplishing it
D) accepts a claim on mere authority, without requiring sufficient justification
E) fails to consider that other psychologists may disagree with the psychologists cited
C) confuses a theoretically best way of accomplishing something with the only way of accomplishing it
Joan got A’s on all her homework assignments, so if she had gotten an A on her term paper, she could pass the course even without doing the class presentation. Unfortunately, she did not get an A on her term paper, so it is obvious that she will have to do the class presentation to pass the course.
The argument’s reasoning is questionable because the argument
A) ignores the possibility that Joan must either have an A on her term paper or do the class presentation to pass the course
B) presupposes without justification that Joan’s not getting an A on her term paper prevents her from passing the course without doing the class presentation
C) overlooks the importance of class presentations to a student’s overall course grade
D) ignores the possibility that if Joan has to do the class presentation to pass course, then she did not get an A on her term paper
E) fails to take into account the possibility that some students get A’s on their term papers but do not pass the course
B) presupposes without justification that Joan’s not getting an A on her term paper prevents her from passing the course without doing the class presentation
Media consultant: Electronic media are bound to bring an end to the institution of the traditional school in our culture. This is because the emergence of the traditional school, characterized by a group of students gathered with a teacher in a classroom, was facilitated by the availability of relatively inexpensive printed books. Currently, however, the function of books in communicating information is gradually being taken over by electronic media. So, it is inevitable that the traditional school will not survive in our culture.
The reasoning in the consultant’s argument is flawed because it
A) presupposes as a premise what it is trying to establish
B) relies inappropriately on expert testimony
C) presupposes that just because something can happen it will happen
D) mistakes something enables an institution to arise for something necessary for the institution
E) confuses the value of an institution with the medium by which it operates
D) mistakes something enables an institution to arise for something necessary for the institution
Pundit: People complain about how ineffectual their legislative representatives are, but this apparent ineffectuality is simply the manifestation of compromises these representatives must make when they do what they were elected to do: compete for the government’s scarce funds. So, when people express dissatisfaction with their legislative representatives, we can be assured that these representatives are simply doing what they were elected to do.
The pundit’s argument is flawed because it takes for granted that
A) the apparent ineffectuality of legislative representatives is the only source of popular dissatisfaction with those representatives
B) governmental resources that are currently scarce cannot become more abundant except by the actions of politicians
C) constituents would continue to be dissatisfied with the effectuality of their legislative representatives if constituents were aware of the cause of this apparent ineffectuality
D) legislative compromise inevitable results in popular dissatisfaction with politicians
E) only elected public servants tend to elicit dissatisfaction among the public
A) the apparent ineffectuality of legislative representatives is the only source of popular dissatisfaction with those representatives
A year ago the government reduced the highway speed limit, and in the year since, there have been significantly fewer highway fatalities than there were in the previous year. Therefore, speed limit reduction can reduce traffic fatalities.
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism that it takes for granted that
A) highway traffic has not increased over the past year
B) the majority of drivers obeyed the new speed limit
C) there is a relation between driving speed and the number of automobile accidents
D) the new speed limit was more strictly enforced than the old
E) the number of traffic fatalities the year before the new speed limit was introduced was not abnormally high
E) the number of traffic fatalities the year before the new speed limit was introduced was not abnormally high
On the basis of the available evidence, Antarctica has generally been thought to have been covered by ice for at least the past 14 million years. Recently, however, three-million-year-old fossils of a kind previously found only in ocean-floor sediments were discovered under the ice sheet covering central Antarctica. About three million years ago, therefore, the Antarctic ice sheet must temporarily have melted. After all, either severe climatic warming or volcanic activity in Antarctica’s mountains could have melted the ice sheet, thus raising sea levels and submerging the continent.
The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to which of the following criticisms?
A) That a given position is widely believed to be true is taken tho show that the position in question must, in fact, be true.
B) That either of two things could independently have produced a given effect is taken to show that those two things could not have operated in conjunction to produce that effect.
C) Establishing that a certain event occurred is confused with having established the cause of that event.
D) A claim that has a very general application is based entirely on evidence from a narrowly restricted range of cases.
E) An inconsistency that, as presented, has more than one possible resolution is treated as though only one resolution is possible.
E) An inconsistency that, as presented, has more than one possible resolution is treated as though only one resolution is possible.
Some statisticians claim that the surest way to increase the overall correctness of the total set of one’s beliefs is: never change that set, except by rejecting a belief when given adequate evidence against it. However, if this were the only rule one followed, then whenever one were presented with any kind of evidence, one would have to either reject some of one’s beliefs or else leave one’s beliefs unchanged. But then, over time, one could only have fewer and fewer beliefs. Since we need many beliefs in order to survive, the statisticians’ claim must be mistaken.
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A) presumes, without providing any justification, that the surest way of increasing the overall correctness of the total set of one’s beliefs must not hinder one’s ability to survive
B) neglects the possibility that even while following the statisticians’ rule, one might also accept new beliefs when presented with some kinds of evidence
C) overlooks the possibility that some large sets of beliefs are more correct overall than are some small sets of beliefs
D) takes for granted that one should accept some beliefs related to survival even when given adequate evidence against them
E) takes for granted that the beliefs we need in order to have many beliefs must all be correct beliefs
A) presumes, without providing any justification, that the surest way of increasing the overall correctness of the total set of one’s beliefs must not hinder one’s ability to survive
